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KERL'S 


ELEMENTAEY 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


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NEW  YORK: 
IVISON,  PEINNEY,.BLAKEMAN  &  CO., 

CHICAGO:   8.'  0.  GRIGGS- A   CO. 
1864. 


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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

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http://www.archive.org/details/elementarygrammaOOkerlrich 


AN 


ELEMENTARY  GRAMMAR 


OF  THE 


ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


BT    SIMON    KERL,    A.M. 


TWENTY-FIRST    EDITION. 

JOHN  S.  PRELL 

Civil  &  Mechanical  Engineer. 

SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL. 

NEW  YORK: 
IVISON,  PHINNEY,  BLAKEMAN  k  CO., 

CHICAGO  :   S.  C.  GRIGGS  &  CO. 


1808. 


KER  J_.'S 

SERIES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMARS. 


Kerl's  Elementary  English  Grammar.— In  the  rapidity  of 
its  sales,  this  little  treatise,  according  to  its  age,  has  surpassed  every  similar 
book  ever  published  in  this  country.  It  contains,  in  a  very  compact  and  sys- 
tematic form,  about  as  much  grammar  as  the  majority  of  children  have  time  to 
learn  in  our  common  public  schools.  It  is,  at  the  same  time,  so  nearly  identical 
with  the  first  part  of  the  large  Grammar,  as  to  enable  the  pupil  to  begin  that 
book  at  Part  Second,  or  even  on  p.  122.     Pages,  164;  well  printed  and  bound. 

Kerl's  Comprehensive  English  Grammar.— This  book 
is  designed  to  be  a  thorough  Practical  Grammar,  for  the  use  of  Common  Schools. 
Nearly  all  that  it  contains  beyond  what  the  generality  of  Grammars  have,  will 
be  new  and  useful.  To  its  sections  on  Verbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunctions, 
Parsing,  Analysis,  Versification,  Punctuation,  Capital  Letters,  Rhe- 
torical Figures,  and  False  Syntax,  particular  attention  is  directed ;  and  also 
to  the  arrangement  of  matter  and  to  the  copious  Illustrations  and  Exercises. 
375  pp.,  12mo. 

Kerl's  Common-Seliool  Grammar. — This  book  is  of  an  inter- 
mediate grade  between  the  two  foregoing  ones ;  and  it  contains,  besides,  the 
most  important  historical  elements  of  the  English  language.  It  is,  however,  so 
elementary,  and  yet  so  comprehensive,  that  it  does  not  require  either  of  the  other 
books.  Great  care  has  been  taken  to  make  it,  in  matter,  method,  arrangement, 
and  typography,  as  good  as  it  can  be  made.     About  300  pages.     Nearly 


Kerl's  Treatise  on  the  English  Langiiagc.  —  This  book 
is  designed  for  High-Schools,  Colleges,  and  Private  Students.  Large  8vo. 
In  preparation. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1S62, 

By  Simon  Kerl, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  lor  the  District  of  Columbia. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1864, 

By    SIMON    KERL, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


Electroyped  by  Smith  &  MoDougal,  82  &  84  Beckman-street. 

Add  to  Lib* 
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JOHM  S.  PRELL       no 

Civil  &  Mechanical  Engineer,  /V3? 

SA1¥$WWxCM-      /ft* 

Tins  little  book  is  designed  for  beginners,  far  Public  Schools,  and  as  an  intro«   «  / 
duction  to  the  Comprehensive  Grammar.  IjM 

It  is  the  result  of  much  labor  and  care,  and  of  considerable  experience  in 
teaching.  In  proportiou  to  its  size,  it  contains  more  grammar,  with  all  the  neces- 
sary illustrations  and  exercises,  than  any  similar  book  with  which  the  author  is 
acquainted.  It  affords  the  pupil  ample  facilities  for  mastering  all  the  parts  of  speech 
for  analyzing  plain  sentences,  and  for  correcting  the  common  errors  of  language. ' 

The  arrangement  of  matter  is  unusually  simple,  progressive,  and  logical  Ac- 
cording to  the  present  system  of  teaching  the  English  language,  the  main  object 
of  an  English  grammar  should  be,  to  show  the  construction  of  the  language,  and 
to  correct  the  popular  errors,  which,  from  ignorance  or  carelessness,  natural^ 
grow  out  of  this  construction.  Hence  I  have  first  presented  the  etymological 
properties,  attended  below  by  a  set  of  exercises  running  parallel  with  the  text; 
then  the  syntactical  properties,  with  exercises;  then  the  etymological  and  syn- 
tactical properties  combined,  first,  in  the  whole  circuit  of  right  construction,  called 
Parsing,  and,  secondly,  in  the  whole  circuit  of  misconstruction,  called  False  Syn- 
tax ;  then  the  construction  of  language  on  that  grander  scale  which  is  called 
Analysis;  and,  lastly,  under  the  head  of  Prosody,  whatever  is  needed,  as  finish 
and  ornament,  to  complete  the  subject. 

I  have  endeavored  to  make  the  study  of  grammar  as  interesting  and  practical 
as  it  can  possibly  bo  made;  to  simplify  and  abridge  definitions  and  classifica- 
tions ;  to  simplify  Parsing  and  Analysis,  by  removing  all  superfluous  machinery, 
and  making  them  more  of  a  self-evident  and  common-sense  affair;  to  follow 
everywhere  the  natural  order  of  things,  except  where  the  pupil's  limited  ability 
requires  variation;  and  to  introduce  difficult  subjects  by  familiar  and  striking 
explanations,  without  requiring  the  pupil  to  learn  a  series  of  questions  and 
answers  from  which  he  can  but  guess  the  principles. 

The  catechetic  system  has  been  adopted  to  some  extent,  because  it  seems  to  be 
the  best  for  beginners ;  but  care  has  been  taken  not  to  abuse  it.  The  arrange- 
ment of  qiteslion,  answer,  and  illustrations,  is  simple  and  direct.  The  labor  of  the 
pupil,  too,  can  be  thus  often  lightened,  by  throwing  the  less  important  matter 
into  the  question,  and  burdening  his  mind  with  not  more  than  the  chief  idea. 
"Where  definitions  seem  rather  long,  it  will  generally  be  found  that  they  are 
enumerative,  or  consist  of  contrasted  parts,  and  are  therefore  more  easily  learned. 

We  should  show  to  children  not  merely  the  essence  in  an  apothecary's  bottle, 
but  take  them  to  the  bush  on  which  the  roses  grow.  The  examples  to  illustrate 
the  text  are  therefore  numerous  and  prominent,  and  the  parts  referred  to  are  mado 
obvious  by  means  of  Italics  and  small  capitals.  This  mode  of  presenting  the  sub- 
ject is  not  unlike  the  approved  method  of  teaching  by  "  object  lessons." 

Since  difficult  words  could  not  always  be  well  avoided,  most  of  them  have 
been  explained  on  the  lower  margins  of  the  pages.  To  understand  fully  what 
we  are  to  learn,  is  the  first  great  requisite  in  studying ;  pupils  can  not,  therefore, 
acquire  too  soon  the  habit  of  referring  to  a  good  dictionary  for  the  meaning  of 
every  word  which  they  do  not  understand. 

Sometimes  words  are  explained  a  little  before  the  pago  to  which  they  belong, 
and  sometimes  the  exercises  are  a  little  beyond  the  page  to  which  they  belong ; 
but  all  the  related  parts  have  been  arranged  as  nearly  together  as  typography 
would  allow. 

This  little  book  is  made  so  nearly  identical  with  Part  First  of  the  Comprehen- 
sive Grammar,  that,  when  the  pupil  has  learned  the  Elementary  Grammar,  he 
may  begin  the  Comprehensive  at  Part  Second,  and  use  Part  First  as  a  review  of 
the  smaller  treatise. 

206 


SYNOPSIS. 

1.  Introductory  View,  or  an  Outline. — Letters,  syllables, 
words,  subjects,  predicates,  phrases,  propositions,  clauses,  sen* 
tences. 

2.  Nouns  and  Pronouns. — Classes  :  ?iouns,  proper  and 
common  ;  pronouns,  —  personal,  relative,  and  interrogative. 
Properties  :  genders, — masculine,  feminine,  common,  and  neuter; 
persons, — first,  second,  and  third  ;  numbers, — singular  and  plu- 
ral ;  cases, — nominative,  possessive,  and  objective.  Declension. 
Exercises. 

3.  Articles. — Kinds ;  definite  and  indefinite.  How  a  and 
an  should  be  used.    Exercises. 

4.  Adjectives. — Classes:  descriptive,  and  definitive  with 
sub-classes.  Degrees  of  comparison /  positive,  comparative, 
and  superlative.  List  of  adjectives  that  are  not  regularly  com- 
pared.    Exercises. 

5.  Verbs. — Classes:  verbs  finite,  participles,  and  infinitives ; 
regular  verbs,  irregular  verbs,  list  of  irregular  verbs  ;  transitive 
and  intransitive.  Properties  :  voices, — active  and  passive  ; 
moods, — indicative,  subjunctive,  potential,  imperative,  infinitive  ; 
tenses, — present,  past,  liiture,  perfect,  pluperfect,  future-perfect, 
with  forms — common,  emphatic,  progressive,  and  passive; 
persons  and  numbers.  Participles  and  infinitives.  Auxiliary 
verbs.     Formation  of  the  tenses.     Conjugation.     Exercises. 

6.  Adverbs. — Their  chief  characteristics.  Large  list,  care- 
fully classified.     Exercises. 

7.  Prepositions. — Their  chief  characteristics.  Adjuncts. 
List  of  prepositions.     Exercises. 

§.  Conjunctions.— '■Classes  ;  coordinate,  subordinate,  cor- 
responding. List  of  conjunctions,  classified  according  to  their 
meanings.     Exercises. 

9.  Interjections. — List,  classified  according  to  the  emotions. 

10.  Rules  off  Syntax. — The  relations  of  words  to  one  an- 
other, in  the  structure  of  sentences.     Exercises  under  eaeli  Rule. 

11.  Parsing. — Formulas,  models,  and  examples. 

1 2.  False  Syntax. — Examples  to  be  corrected,  under  the 
Rules  and  other  principles  of  grammar. 

13.  Analysis  off  Sentences. — Principles,  with  exercises. 
Formulas.  Sentences  analyzed.  Thought  and  its  expression. 
The  six  elements.     Exercises.     Gray's  Elegy. 

14.  Prosody. — Punctuation,  figures,  and  versification. 


ELEMENTARY   GRAMMAR. 


.♦►*-•- 


I.   INTRODUCTORY  VIEW. 

"What  is  language  t 

Language  is  the  medium  by  which  we  express 
oar  thoughts. 

Of  what  does  language  consist  ? 

Of  a  great  variety  of  sounds,  which  are  used  as  the 
signs  of  our  ideas,  and  are  called  words. 

To  what  may  all  these  sounds  be  reduced  ? 

To  a  small  number  of  simple  sounds,  which  are 
made  intelligible  to  the  eye,  as  well  as  to  the  ear,  by 
means  of  certain  marks  called  letters. 

Language  thus  becomes  both  spoken  and  written. 
What  is  a  letter  f 

A  letter  is  a  character  that  denotes  one  or  more 
of  the  elementary  sounds  of  language. 

Examples  :  A,  b,  c ;  age,  at,  art,  all ;  bubble ;  cent,  cart. 
53^°  Always  read  the  examples  carefully,  reflecting  upon  each,  so  that  you 
may  learn  clearly  and  fully  what  is  meant  by  the  definition. 

Oram  mar  is  the  science  which  teaches  us  to  speak  and  write 

correctly.     English  Grammar  teaches  how  to  speak  and  write 

the  English  language  correctly. 

Grammar  may  be  divided  into  five  parts  ;  Pronunciation,  Orthog'- 

raphy,  Etymology,  Syn'tax,  and  Pros' ody.     (Spelling,  pronunciation, 

and  derivation,  should  be  learned  chiefly  from  spelling-books.) 

Words  Explained*— Grammar  is  derived  from  the  Greek  word  gramma, 
a  letter,  aud  thence  writing  ;  because  the  need  of  a  knowledge  of  language  isgreatest, 
or  most  felt,  when  we  undertake  to  write  it,  and  hence  language  became  an  object 
of  study  chiefly  with  a  view  to  writing  it.  A  sci'ence  is  a  branch  of  knowledge  put 
together  in  some  proper  order.  M-e-mentf-a-ry,  simple,  what  we  begin  with ;  con- 
taming  what  is  most  important.  IrUroducftory,  leading  in.  Lanfguage,  from  the 
Latin  lingua,  tongue ;  because  the  tongue  is  thechief  organ  of  speech.  Mef-dl-um ; 
that  through  which  a  thing  passes,  or  by  which  it  is  conveyed.  Ide'a  ;  the  picture 
or  notion  of  a  thing,  in  the  mind.  Intel' lig idle,  such  that  it  can  be  understood. 
Character,  a  mark  or  sign.  Emm'ple,  what  shows  or  proves,  a  pattern.  Re- 
fecting, thinking  back  upon.  Definition  ;  a  short  description  of  a  thing,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  different  things,  by  telling  what  it  is. 


2  INTRODUCTORY   VIEW. 

flow  many  elementary  sounds  has  our  language,  and  how  many  letters  to 
represent  them  ? 

About  forty  elementary  sounds,  and  twenty-six  let- 
ters to  represent  them. 

Into  what  two  classes  are  the  letters  divided  ? 

Into  vowels  and  consonants. 

"What  is  a  vowel  ?  and  what  is  a  consonant  t 

A  vowel  is  a  letter  that  denotes  pure  sound  only ; 
a  consonant  is  a  letter  that  generally  denotes  a  contact 
of  some  of  the  organs  of  speech. 

"Which  are  the  vowels  ? 

A,  e,  i,  o,  u,  and  sometimes  w  and  y. 

Wor  y  is  a  consonant,  only  when  it  is  followed  by  a  vowel  sound  in  the  same 
syllable  j  as  in  water,  young,  away,  Bunyan. 
What  is  a  syllable? 

A  syllabic  is  a  letter,  or  two  or  more  combined, 
pronounced  as  one  unbroken  sound. 

Ex. — A,  I,  on,  no,  not,  stretched,  barb'dst,  a-e-ri-al,  pro-fu-sion. 
What  is  a  word  ? 

A  word  is  a  syllable,  or  two  or  more  combined, 
used  as  the  sign  of  some  idea. 

Ex. — Man,  tree,  sky,  pink,  beauty,  strikes,  well,  fair,  alas,  because. 
How  are  words  classified  accordiug  to  their  syllables  ? 

Into  monosyllables,  dissyllables,  trisyllables,  and 
polysyllables. 

Exercises. 

Tell  which  of  the  following  letters  are  vowels,  and  which  are  consonants : — 
A,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q,  r,  s,  t,  u,  v,  w,  x,  y,  z; 
bar,  bed,  kind,  fond,  turn,  Baltimore. 

JW*ords  Explained, — Hep-resent' ',  to  stand  in  the  place  of,  to  show. 
Class  f  things  put  together  because  alike,  or  because  alike  in  certain  respects.  Con'- 
so-nant,  sounding  with,  sounded  with  a  vowel ;  a  consonant  can  be  sounded  only 
with  a  vowel.  Organs  of  speech;  the  glottis,  palate,  tongue,  teeth,  and  lips. 
Combined',  put  together.  Con'tact,  a  touching,  junction  Clas'sijied,  put  into 
classes.      Monos,  alone,  one  ;  dis,  double ;  tri,  three ;  polys,  many. 

Pronunciation  treats  of  sounds ;  Orthography,  of  letters ;  Ely- 
onology,  of  words;  Syntax,  of  sentences;  and  Prosody,  of  the  finish 
and  ornaments  of  sentences. 


INTRODUCTORY   VIEW.  3 

Define  these  classes. 

A  monosyllable  is  a  word  of  one  syllable ;  a  dis- 
syllable, of  two ;  a  trisyllable,  of  three ;  and  a  poly- 
syllable, of  four  or  more. 

Ex. — I,  song ;  baker ;  ornament ;  customary,  incomprehensibility. 
How  are  words  classified  according  to  their  formation  ? 

Into  primitive,  derivative,  and  compound. 

Define  these  classes. 

A  primitive  word  is  not  formed  from  another  word ; 
a  derivative  word  is  formed  from  another  word ;  and  a 
compound  word  is  composed  of  two  or  more  other  words. 

Ex. — Primitive:  Breeze,  build.  Derivative  :  Breezy,  builder,  re- 
build.    Compound:  Sea-breeze,  newspaper. 

How  are  words  divided  according  to  their  meaning? 

Into  nine  classes,  called  Parts  or  Speech. 

Name  them. 

Nouns,  Pronouns,  Articles,  Adjectives,  Verbs,  Ad- 
verbs, Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  and  Interjections. 

Familiar  Explanation. — I  might  present  to  your  mind,  by  words  alone,  all 
that  I  have  ever  seen  or  experienced.  To  do  this,  I  should  have  to  use  nouns  and 
pronouns,  to  denote  objects ;  articles,  to  aid  the  nouns ;  adjectives,  to  express  the 


Exercises. 

Tell  which  are  monosyllables,  dissyllables,  trisyllables,  polysyllables,  and  why : — 

Pink,  lily,  daffodil,  ordinary,  gold,  silver,  golden,  silvery,  book, 
grammar,  grammatical,  grammatically,  arithmetic,  behavior,  punish- 
ment, home,  mother,  relative,  relatives,  unassisted. 

Whether  primitive,  derivative,  or  compound,  and  why  : — 

Play,  playing,  play-day,  snow,  snowy,  ball,  balls,  snowball,  snow- 
balls, noble,  nobly,  noble-minded,  plant,  transplant,  planter,  planta- 
tion, tea-plant,  water-melon,  he,  hero,  heroic,  nothing,  nevertheless. 

VTords  Explained,— Prim'-i-tive, first,  simple.  Pe-riv'-a-4ive,draY,n 
from.  Com'pou/id,  made  up  of  others.  Denote',  to  stand  as  the  sign  of.  Ot/ject, 
any  thing  that  can  be  thought  of  as  being  something.  Express',  make  known. 
Exercise,  a  drilling  to  give  us  a  better  or  practical  knowledge  of  something. 

Pronunciation  treats  of  the  sounds  of  letters  and  syllables,  and 
of  accent.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Latin  words  pro,  forth,  and 
nuncius,  a  messenger ;  uttering  forth  aloud. 

Orthography  treats  of  the  forms  of  letters,  and  of  spelling.  From 
the  Greek  orthos,  correct,  and  graphe,  writing;  correct  writing  or 
spelling. 


4  INTRODUCTORY   VIEW. 

qualities,  conditions,  or  circumstances  of  objects ;  verbs,  to  express  their  actions, 
or  states  of  existence ;  adverbs,  to  describe  their  actions,  or  to  show  the  nature 
or  degree  of  their  qualities  ;  prepositions,  to  express  their  positions  or  relations  to 
one  another;  conjunctions,  to  continue  the  diseourse,  or  to  connect  its  parts;  and 
interjections,  to  give  vent  to  any  feeling  or  emotion  springing  up  suddenly 
within  me. 

Ex. — 2To uns :  In  spring,  the  sun  shines  pleasantly  upon  the  earth,  leaves 
and  flowers  come  forth,  and  birds  sing  in  the  woods. 

n  -r,  .    ,  .    ,  -,  the  roses  adorn  tho  window. 

Pronouns:  Eoses  encircle  my  window,  and      ^  adorn  it 

Articles :  The  church  stands  on  a  hill. 

Adjectives:  Ripe  strawberries  are  good.     That  man  owns  two  farms. 
Verbs :  Rivers  flow,  stars  shine,  men  work,  and  boys  study  and  play. 
Adverbs :  Below  us,  a  most  beautiful  river  flowed  very  smoothly. 
Pr epositions :  There  are  cedars  on  the  hill  beyond  the  river. 
Conjunctions  :  John  and  James  are  happy,  because  they  are  good. 
Interjection:    All  seek  for  happiness;  but,  alas  1  bow  few  obtain  it. 
Suggestion  to  the  Teacher. — Take  a  walk  with  your  class,  during  some  leis- 
mre  interval,  and  teach  them  the  parts  of  speech,  from  the  surrounding  scenery. 


Of  what,  at  least,  must  every  thought  or  saying  consist  ? 

Of  a  Subject  and  a  Predicate. 

What  is  meant  by  the  subject  t 

The  subject  denotes  that  of  which  something  is 
affirmed. 

Ex. — The  cannons  were  fired.  The  leaves  and  flowers  in  the  garden 
have  been  killed  by  the  frost. 

What  is  meant  by  the  predicate  ? 

The  pa-edncate  denotes  what  is  affirmed. 

Ex. — The  cannons  were  fired.  The  leaves  and  flowers  in  the  garden 
have  been  killed  by  the  frost. 

Exercises. 

Tell  which  is  the  subject,  and  which  is  the  predicate,  and  why : — 
Birds  sing.       Flowers  bloom.       Cats  catch  mice.       The  dew  re- 
freshes the  flowers.       The  stars  gem  the  sky.       The  Indians'  tents 

Jf^Ofds  Explained* — Subject^  from  8ubjectu8,  thrown  under,  because 
viewed  as  being  the  foundation  on  which  the  proposition  or  sentence  is  based. 
Predicate,  from  prcedico,  I  speak  or  say.  To  affirm,  in  grammar,  means  to  assert 
positively  or  negatively,  to  ask,  or  to  command. 

Etymology  treats  of  the  true  roots  and  meanings  of  words,  and 
of  the  true  or  right  forms  of  words  to  be  put  into  sentences  accord- 
ing to  Syntax.  From  the  Greek  etymos,  true,  and  logos,  a  word  or 
discourse  ;  the  right  words  or  forms. 


INTRODUCTORY    VIEW.  5 

How  are  subjects  and  predicates  classified  ? 

Into  simple  and  compound. 

Define  simple  subjects  and  compound  subjects. 

A  simple  subject  has  but  one  nominative  to  which 
the  predicate  refers;  a  compound  subject  has  more 
than  one. 

Ex. — Simple  :  "  TJie  boy         learns;1'  u  The  boy  who  is studious,         learns." 
Co  mp  ound:  "  The  boy  and  his  sister        learn ;"  "  The  boys  and  girls  who 
are  studious,         learn." 

Define  simple  predicates  and  compound  predicates. 

A  simple  predicate  has  but  one  finite  verb  referring 
to  the  subject;  a  compound  predicate  has  more  than 
one. 

Ex. — Simple:   "Boys  study;"     "Boys  study  the  lessons  which 

are  given   to  them"      Compound:    "Boys  study,   recite,   and  play;'1* 

u  Boys  study  and  recite  the  Itssons  which  are  given  to  them." 

"What  is  a  phrase  f 

A  phrase  is  two  or  more  words  rightly  put  to- 
gether, but  not  making  a  proposition. 

Ex. — In  the  next  place.  Biding  on  horseback.  To  gather  roses  while 
they  bloom. 

Exercises, 

stood  along  the  river.       John  caught  a  fish.       The  fish  was  caught 

by  John.       William  studies  his  lesson.       A  guilty  conscience  needs 

no  accuser.       The  grass  is  growing.       The  bird  has  been  singing. 

In  a  few  years,  these  tribes  will  have  disappeared. 

The  subject  and  Die  predicate,  and  why ;  wlieiher  simple  or  compound,  and  why : — 

The  stars  twinkle.       The  sun  and  moon  shine.       The  sun  rises 

and  sets.       Emma  was  gathering  roses.      Trees  and  flowers  grow, 

flourish,  and  decay.       The  troubled  ocean  roars.       Honeysuckles 

and  roses  overspread  our  portico.       Laura  brought  a  fresh  rose,  and 

gave  it  to  me.       A  dark  cloud  hides  the  sun.       The  sun  is  hidden 

by  a  dark  cloud.       You  and  he  may  go  and  recite.     The  soldiers* 

horses  were  in  the  pasture.      The  cannons  which  the  soldiers  brought, 

were  captured  in  the  battle.     Do  well,  but  boast  not.     (Supply  tliou.) 

■Pf^ord*  Explained.— Norn?  inative,  naming,  chief  word  in  meaning. 
Refers,  hangs  to  in  sense.  Fi'nite,  not  free,  drawn  to  some  particular  thing ;  *  finite 
verb  has  a  particular  form  (called  its  person  and  number),  which  confines  it  to  a  par- 
ticular kind  of  subject.      Phrase,  from  a  Greek  word  that  signifies  to  speak  or  say. 

Syntax  treats  of  the  relations  and  arrangement  of  words  b  the 

formation  of  sentences.     From  the  Greek  st/n,  together,  and  taxis,  a 

placing ;  placing  together. 


6  IXTRODUCTOKY   VIEW. 

What  is  a  proposition  t 

A  proposition  is  a  subject  combined  with  its 
predicate. 

Ex. — Stars  shine.       And  if  J  my  hopes  must  perish. 

A  proposition  is  an  expression  viewed  as  having  a  subject  and  a  predicate ;  a 
clause  is  a  proposition  viewed  as  making  but  a  part  of  a  sentence. 
What  is  a  clause  t 

A  clause  is  any  one  of  two  or  more  propositions 
which  together  make  a  sentence. 

Ex. — The  morning  was  pure  and  sunny,  the  fields  were  wliite  with  daisies, 
the  hawthorn  was  covered  with  its  fragrant  blossoms,  the  bee  hummed  about 
every  bank,  and  the  swallow  played  high  in  air  about  the  village  steeple. — Irving. 
Thi3  sentence  has  five  clauses,  separated  by  the  comma. 

What  is  a  sentence  ? 

A  sentence  is  a  thought  expressed  by  words,  and 
comprised  between  two  full  pauses. 

Ex. — Every  man  is  the  architect  of  his  own  fortune.  Is  life  so  dear,  or 
peace  so  sweet,  as  to  be  purchased  at  the  price  of  chains  and  slavery  ? 

A  sentence  is  simple,  when  it  consists  of  but  one  simple  proposition ;  it  is 
tompound  or  complex,  when  it  can  be  resolved  into  two  or  more  propositions. 


Exercises. 

WJiether  a  phrase  or  a  sentence,  and  why  : — 

Far  away.  The  dark  storm  approaches.  John's  slate.  Many 
small  pieces.  John's  slate  is  broken  into  many  small  pieces.  The 
rising  sun.  The  snn  is  rising.  A  large  red  apple.  Give  me  a 
large  red  apple.       To  write  a  letter.       1  wish  to  write  a  letter. 

Whether  a  simple  sentence  or  a  compound,  and  why ;  and  if  compound,  mention 
the  clauses : — 

Hope  gilds  the  future.  True  praise  takes  root  and  spreads.  The 
rain  is  pouring  down  heavily,  and  the  river  is  rapidly  rising.  The 
sun  illuminates  the  distant  hills.  Billows  are  murmuring  on  the 
hollow  shore.  Gold  can  not  purchase  life,  nor  can  diamonds  biing 
back  the  moments  we  have  lost.  God  has  robed  the  world  with 
beauty.  From  flower  and  shrub  arose  a  sweet  perfume.  Prosper- 
ity produces  wealth  ;  and  wealth,  corruption. 

VW*ord$  Explained.— Proposition,  from  the  Latin  fro,  before,  and  positio, 
placing*  something  placed  before  a  person's  mind  to  be  thought  upon.  Clause, 
something  that  fills  up  or  closes  the  sense.  Sentence  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word 
senten'tia,  a  thought  or  an  opinion.  Com'plex,  knit  together,  tangled;  con- 
sisting of  parts  closely  connected. 

Prosody  treats  of  punctuation,  figures,  and  versification.  From 
the  Greek  pros,  to,  and  ode,  tone  added ;  and  thence,  whatever  is 
added  to  unadorned  language  to  make  it  clearer  or  more  expressive. 


NOUNS   AND   PRONOUNS.  7 

3.  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. 

"What  is  a  noun  ? 

A  »o  qui  is  a  name. 

Ex.~God,  Mary,  man,  George  Washington,  sky,  sun,  city,  St.  Louis,  street, 
flower,  soul,  feeling,  sense,  motion,  behavior. 

Names  are  given  to  persons,  to  spiritual  beings,  to  brute  animals,  and  to 
things.    The  word  objects  may  be  used  as  a  general  term  for  all  these  classes. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  nouns ;  proper  and  common. 

What  is  a  proper  noun  ? 

A  proper  noun  is  the  name  given  to  a  particular 
object,  to  distinguish  it  from  other  objects  of  the 
same  kind. 

Ex. — George,  Susan,  William  Shakespeare,  Now  York,  Mississippi,  Monday, 
January;  the  Robert  Fulton;  the  Intelligencer ;  the  Azores. 
What  is  a  common  noun  ? 

A  coBUBiion  noun  is  a  name  that  can  be  applied  to 
every  object  of  the  same  kind. 

Ex. — Boy,  tree,  house,  city,  river,  horse,  chair,  ink,  bird,  blackbird. 
All  the  objects  in  the  world  may  be  divided  into  a  limited  number  of  classes; 
as,  rivers,  valleys,  hills,  cities,  leaves,  flowers.     A  few  of  these  classes — namely, 


Exercises. 

Thfi  nouns,  and  why : — 

A  house  of  marble.  There  are  lions  and  ostriches  in  Africa. 
John  and  Joseph  drove  the  horses  to  the  pasture.  There  are  roses, 
pinks,  lilies,  and  tulips  in  our  garden.  The  groves  were  God's  first 
temples.  Love  and  kindness  go  together.  Col.  Thomas  H. 
Benton  died  in  the  year  1858.  There  was  much  Indian  fighting  in 
the  settling  of  this  country.  I  like  apples.  I  like  to  skate. 
A  home  on  the  rolling  deep.  Learn  the  how  and  the  why.  You 
is  a  pronoun.  Why  he  did  not  go,  is  obvious.  (What  is  obvious?) 
I  know  that  you  are  wrong.     (I  know  what  ?) 

The  pear  and  quince  lay  squandered  on  the  grass ; 

The  mould  was  purple  with  unheeded  showers 
Of  bloomy  plums  ; — a  wilderness  it  was 
Of  fruits,  and  weeds,  and  flowers ! — Hood, 

JV*ords  Explained. — Spiritual  beings,  such  as  God  and  angels. 
Brute  animals,  all  the  animals  of  the  earth  except  man.  General  term,  a  word 
that  denotes  different  things.  Prop'er  noun,  a  name  that  belongs  toa  person  or 
thing  just  as  private  property  belongs  to  its  owner.  Common,  belonging  to  every 
one,  found  everywhere.  Applied,  given  to.  Distinguish,  to  set  off  so  that  we 
may  know  from  others.      Limited,  within  reach  or  command. 


8  NOUNS    A.ND   TKONOUNS. 

persons,  places,  months,  days,  ships,  boats,  horses,  oxen,  rivers,  mountains,  and 
some  others — are  of  so  much  importance  to  us  in  our  daily  affairs,  that  wo  havo 
an  extra  name  for  each  object  of  the  class ;  as,  Thomas,  Smith,  Chicago,  Mis- 
souri. The  names  of  the  former  kind  are  common  nouns ;  those  of  the  latter, 
proper  nouns.  The  common  noun  rather  tells  what  the  object  is ;  and  the  proper 
noun,  who  or  which  it  is.  A  proper  noun  begins  with  a  capital  letter. 
What  is  a  collective  noun  ? 

A  collective  noun  is  a  common  noun  that  always 
denotes,  in  the  singular  form,  more  than  one  object 
of  the  same  kind. 

Ex. — Family,  army,  swarm,  multitude,  congregation,  class. 
Sub'stantive  is  often  used  as  a  general  term  to  denote  either  a  noun  or  a  pro- 
noun,  or  whatever  is  used  in  the  sense  of  a  noun. 


What  is  a  pronoun? 

A  pronoun  is  a  word  that  supplies  the  place  of  a 
noun. 

Ex. — "William  promised  Mary  that  William  would  lend  Mary  William's 
grammar,  that  Mary  might  study  the  grammar,"  is  expressed  more  agreeably  by 
saying,  "  William  promised  Mary  that  he  would  lend  her  his  grammar,  that  slie 
might  study  it"     Pronouns  enable  us  to  avoid  disagreeable  repetitions  of  nouns. 

What  is  the  antecedent  of  a  pronoun  ? 

The  antecedent  of  a  pronoun  is  the  word  or  expres* 
sion  which  it  represents. 

William,  Mary,  and  grammar,  above,  are  the  antecedents  of  he,  she,  and  it. 


Exercises. 

The  nouns,  and  why ;  whether  proper  or  common,  and  why : — 

Girl,  Susan,  boy,  George,  country,  day,  Europe,  Saturday,  month, 

September,  holiday,  Christmas,  bird,  blackbird,  parrot,  Polly,  river, 

Mississippi,   mountains,    Andes,    island,    Cuba,    chain,   Jane,    Louis, 

Louisa,  Louisiana,  state,  city,  New  York,  year,  1860,  soil,  mind,  hope, 

army;  Mrs.  Amelia   Welby ;    the  prophet  Jonah;  Cape    Lookout. 

Ferdinand    and    Isabella,   the   king    and  queen   of  Spain,   enabled 

Columbus,  a  Genoese,  to  discover  America.     The   clamor  of  most 

politicians  is  but  an  effort  to  get  the  ins  out  and  the  outs  in. 

JW*ords  Explained,*— CoUec'tive,  gathering  together  or  into  one.  Sub'- 
stantive, from  sub,  under,  and  stans,  standing ;  standing  under,  upholding  qual- 
ities :  this*  word  is  applied  to  nouns  and  pronouns,  because  objects,  denoted  by 
them,  have  a  sort  of  independent  existence;  while  qualities  and  actions  are  in  a 
manner  dependent  on  objects.  Pro  means  for,  or  in  stead  of;  hence  pronoun 
means  for  a  noun.  Antece'dent,  from  ante,  before,  and  cedens,  going ;  going 
before :  the  antecedent  of  a  pronoun  generally  precedes  it. 


NOUNS    AND   rKONOUNS.  9 

There  are  three  chief  classes  of  pronouns;  personal, 
relative,  and  interrogative. 

What  is  a  personal  pronoun  ? 

A  personal  pronoun  is  one  of  that  class  of  pro- 
nouns which  are  used  to  distinguish  the  three  gram- 
matical persons. 

Ex.— I  told  you  he  was  not  at  home.       We  told  him  who  you  are. 
Persons,  in  grammar,  are  properties  of  words  to  distinguish  the  speaker,  what 
is  spoken  to,  and  what  is  spoken  of,  from  one  another. 
Which  are  the  chief  or  leading  personal  pronouns  ? 

/,  thou  or  you,  he,  she,  and  it. 

What  is  a  relative  pronoun  ? 

A  relative  pronoun  is  one  whose  clause  generally 
relates  to  and  describes  a  preceding  word,  and  is 
always  a  dependent  part  of  the  sentence. 

Ex. — "There  is  the  man  whom  you  saw;"  "From  the  side  of  a  mountain 
gushed  forth  a  little  rivulet,  which  lay,  like  a  silver  thread,  across  the  meadow ;" 
"I  do  not  know  who  took  your  hat;"  "  No  one  knows  what  ails  the  child." 
Observe  that  the  Italic  words  with  what  follows  each,  can  make  sense  only  in 
connection  with  the  other  words,  and  hence  the  relative  clauses  are  said  to  be 
dependent. 

Which  are  the  chief  or  leading  relative  pronouns  ? 

Who,  which,  what,  that,  aftd  as. 

Relative  pronouns  may  be  divided  into  common  and  responsive.  "Who 
came?"  "  I  do  not  know  who  came."  (Responsive  relative.)  "I  dc  not  know 
the  man  who  came."  (Common  relative.)  Observe  that  the  second  sentence  dif- 
fers, in  meaning,  from  the  third.  Who  came,  of  the  second  sentence,  is  the  pre- 
ceding question  made  responsive;  but  since  the  clause  is  dependent,  and  not 
interrogative,  its  pronoun  may  be  classed  with  relatives  rather  than  with  inter- 
rogatives. 

Exercises. 

Mention  the  pronouns  and  their  antecedents ;  also  put  nouns  for  the  pronouns  ;— 
The  tree  has  shed  its  leaves.  Liberty  has  God  on  her  side. 
Let  every  man  take  care  of  himself.  John,  you,  and  I,  must  learn 
our  lessons.  John  and  James  know  their  lessons.  Neither  John 
nor  James  knows  his  lesson.  Henry,  you  must  study.  And  there 
her  brood  the  partridge  led. 

f Words  Explained.— Rel'ative,  referring.  Dependent,  hanging  to 
something  else  for  support— in  grammar,  for  complete  sense.  Respon'noe,  an- 
swering.      Grammatical,  belonging  to  grammar,  or  right  according  to  grammar. 


10  NOUNS   AND   PRONOUNS. 

What  is  an  interrogative  pronoun  ? 

An  interrogative  pronoun  is  one  used  to  ask  a 
question. 

Ex. —  Who  took  my  hat  ?       Which  is  yours  ?       WMt  ails  the  child  ? 
Which  are  the  chief  or  leading  interrogative  pronouns  ? 

Who,  which,  and  what. 

What  other  words  are  frequently  used  as  pronouns  ? 

One,  ones,  oneself,  none ;  other,  others :  that,  those; 
each  other,  one  another. 

Ex. — "  Take  this  horse,  and  leave  the  other  one  ;"  i.  e.,  other  horse.  "  The 
course  of  life  is  short;  that  [the  course]  of  glory,  eternal."  "  They  deemed  each 
other  oracles  of  law." — Pope. 

What  is  a  compound  pronoun  ? 

A  compound  pronoun  is  a  simple  pronoun  with 
self,  selves,  ever,  so,  or  soever  annexed  to  it ;  or  it  is  a 
pronoun  consisting  of  two  words. 

Ex. — My,  myself;  them,  themselves;  who,  whoever;  each  other. 
What  properties  have  nouns  and  pronouns  ? 

Genders,  persons,  numbers,  and  eases. 

Just  as  every  apple,  for  instance,  must  have  size,  color,  flavor,  etc. 


Exercises, 

Put  nouns  for  tlie  pronouns  : — 

John  knows  his  lesson.  Mary  has  lost  her  bonnet.  He  met 
her.  I  saw  him  and  you.  He  showed  them  the  lesson,  that  they 
might  learn  it.  The  girl  went  with  her  father,  and  the  boy  went 
with  his  mother,  and  they  were  good  children.  Who  knows  who 
he  is  ?  ( What  person  *  *  *  that  man,  etc.)  Bad  boys  spoil  good 
ones.       Take  what  you  like. 

The  pronouns,  and  why ;  what  kind,  and  why : — 

He  saw  me.  We  love  them.  She  deceived  herself.  Know 
thyself.  When  a  dandy  has  squandered  his  estate,  he  is  not  apt  to 
regain  it.  The  lady  who  had  been  sick,  received  the  peaches  which 
were  ripe.  This  is  the  same  marble  that  you  gave  me,  and  it  is  the 
best  one  that  I  have.  Who  came  ?  Who  is  he  ?  Which  is  he  \ 
What  is  he  ?  We  bought  only  such  mules  as  we  needed.  ( — those 
mules  which — )  Love  what  is  worthy  of  love.  ( — the  thing 
which — )     This  apple  is  neither  yours  nor  mine,  but  hers.     ( — your 

W*ords  Explained.— Interrogative,  asking.  Annexed',  joined  to  the 
end.  D'ef'-i-nite,  particular,  exact.  Prop'erty,  what  belongs  to  a  thing,  or  is  a 
part  of  its  nature. 


NOUNS   AND  PRONOUNS.  H 

a.  The  pupil  should  constantly  bear  in  mind,  that  language  is  mado  to  suit 
the  world,  and  not  the  world  to  suit  language.  The  properties  of  words  ariso 
generally  from  the  nature  or  relations  of  objects.  We  can  readily  observe  that 
the  objects  around  us  are  either  males,  females,  or  neither ;  and  to  enable  us  to 
be  sufficiently  definite  in  these  respects,  words  have  what  grammarians  call 
genders.     "What,  then,  is  gender  1 

CJendcr  is  the  meaning  of  a  word  in  regard  to  sex. 
There  are  four  genders ;  the  mas'culine,  the  fern'- 
inine,  the  common,  and  the  neuter. 

What  does  the  masculine  gender  denote  ? 

The  fiiiasc uli ne  gender  denotes  males. 

Ex. — Man,  Charles,  brother,  horse,  ox,  drake,  instructor,  he,  his,  him. 
What  does  the  feminine  gender  denote  ? 

The  ieaninifiic  gender  denotes  females. 

Ex. — Woman,  Susan,  niece,  cow,  duck,  instructress,  she,  her. 
What  does  the  common  gender  denote  ? 

The  common  gender  denotes  either  males  or  fe- 
males, or  both. 

Ex. — Parent,  child,  cousin,  people,  animal,  I,  we,  thou,  your,  who. 

Sometimes  the  sex  may  be  ascertained  more  definitely  from  some  other  word 
in  the  sentence,  and  then  the  words  should  be  parsed  accordingly;  as,  "The 
child  and  his  mother  were  in  good  health."  Here  child  is  masculine,  as  shown 
by  his. 

Exercises. 

apple  nor  my  apple,  but  her  apple.)  By  others'  faults,  wise  men 
correct  their  own.  (By  other  men's  faults,  etc.)  None  are  com- 
pletely happy.  (No  persons  are,  etc.)  He  loves  no  other  land  so 
much  as  that  of  his  adoption.  ( — as  the  land — )  Whatever 
comes  from  the  heart,  goes  to  the  heart.  Do  you  know  who  he  is  ? 
Teach  me  what  truth  is. 

The  personal  pronouns :  /,  my,  mine,  myself,  me  ;  ice,  our,  ours, 
(ourself)  ourselves,  us  ; — thou,  thy,  thine,  thyself,  thee ;  you,  ye, 
your,  yours,  yourself,  yourselves  ; — he,  his,  him,  himself ;  she,  her, 
hers,  herself ;  it,  its,  itself;  they,  their,  theirs,  them,  and  themselves. 

The  relative  pronouns :  Who,  whoever,  whosoever ;  tvhose, 
whomever,  whosesoever  ;  v)hom,  whomever,  whomsoever ;  which,  which- 
ever, -whichsoever;  what,  whatever,  whatsoever ;  that;  and  a.?. 

Whoso  and  whatso  are  sometimes  found  as  shortened  forms  of  whosoever  and  whatsoever. 

fiords  Explained*— Grammarians,  persons  that  make  grammar  their 
business,  or  understand  it  well.  Gender  is  a  property  of  words,  but  se.c  is  a  prop- 
erty of  objects  ;  hence  there  can  be  but  two  sexes,  yet  there  may  be  four  geuders. 
Common,  as  applied  to  gender,  means  applicable  to  either  sex ;  neuter,  to  neither 
eex.      Applicable,  may  be  given  to. 


12  NOUNS    AND   PRONOUNS. 

"What  does  the  neuter  gender  denote  ? 

The  neuter  gender  denotes  neither  males  nor  fe- 
males. 

Ex. — Book,  rock,  rose,  wisdom,  cloud,  happiness,  it,  what,  flocks. 
A  collective  noun  that  denotes  a  group  of  persons  or  other  beings  as  one 
thing,  is  neuter ;  as,  "  The  army  was  checked  in  its  desolating  career." 

How  is  a  word  naturally  neuter,  sometimes  regarded  by  personification  t 

As  masculine,  if  the  object  is  noted  for  size,  power, 
or  domineering  qualities;  as  feminine,  if  the  object  is 
noted  for  beauty,  amiability,  productiveness,  or  sub- 
missive qualities. 

Ex. — Now  War  aloft  his  bloody  standard  bears.  The  sun  seemed  shorn  of 
his  beams.       The  ship,  with  her  snowy  sails  and  flaunting  banner. 

In  what  three  different  ways  do  we  commonly  distinguish  the  sexes  ? 

By  the  use  of  different  words,  by  difference  of  end- 
ing, or  by  prefixing  a  distinguishing  word. 

Ex. — Boy,  girl ;  actor,  actress ;  7*e-bear,  she -bear. 
What  are  the  most  common  endings  that  denote  females. 

Ess,  ix,  ine,  and  a. 

Ex. — Lion,  lioness  ;  administrator,  administratrix ;  hero,  heroine  ;  Cornelius, 
Cornelia. 


Exercises. 

TJie  gender,  and  why  : — 

Brother,  seamstress,  Julius,  Julia,  parent,  father,  mother,  son, 
daughter,  child,  duck,  gander,  robin,  snow,  book,  mouse,  he,  him, 
hymn,  she,  hers,  it,  they,  we,  I,  eye,  you,  it,  its,  himself,  herself, 
themselves,  nations,  party,  clergy,  game,  person,  corpse,  spirit,  who, 
which,  what ;  lady's  hand  ;  lady's-slipper.  Hope  enchanting  smiled, 
and  waved  her  golden  hair.       John  is  a  noun,  and  she  is  a  pronoun. 

Give  the  feminine  to  each  masculine  term,  then  the  masculine  to  each  feminine 
term : — 

Boy,  girl  •  brother,  sister ;  beau,  belle ;  bridegroom,  bride ; 
buck,  doe  ;  hart,  roe  ;  stag,  hind  ;  bull,  cow;  bullock  or  steer,  heifer  ; 
drake,  duck  ;  father,  mother  ;  friar  or  monk,  nun  *  gander,  goose  ; 
gentleman,  lady  (formerly,  gentlewoman)  ;  lord,  lady ;  landlord, 
landlady/  horse,  mare;  husband,  wife;  king,  queen;  lad,  lass; 
male,  female;  madwoman;  master,  mistress;  master,  miss;  nephew, 

W*ords  Explained, — Personification  is  a  lively  mode  of  speaking,  in 
which  objects  that  are  not  persons,  are  spoken  of  as  if  they  were  persons,  or  as 
males  or  females ;  as,  "  All  /Switzerland  is  in  the  field  ;  she  will  not  fly,  she  can  not 
yield."      Domineering,  ruling,  tyrannical.      Submissive,  yielding,  obedient. 


NOUNS   AND  PRONOUNS.  13 

b.  In  speaking,  we  may  refer  either  to  ourselves,  to  something  spoken  to,  or 
to  something  spoken  of,  and  there  are  no  other  ways  of  speaking ;  hence  words 
have  what  grammarians  call  persons.     "What,  then,  is  person  1 

Person,  in  grammar,  is  that  property  of  words 
which  shows  whether  the  speaker  is  meant,  what  is 
spoken  to,  or  what  is  spoken  of. 

There  are  three  persons ;  the  first,  the  second,  and 
the  third. 

What  does  the  Jirsi  person  denote  1 

The  first  person  denotes  the  speaker. 

Ex. — I  Andrew  Jackson,  President  of  the  United  States.  1  Paul  have  writ- 
ten it.       We,  the  people  of  these  colonies. 

What  does  the  second  person  denote  ? 

The  second  person  represents  an  object  as  spoken 
to. 

Ex. — Thomas,  come  to  me.  Gentlemen  of  the  jury.  0  Happiness  I  our 
being's  end  and  aim.       Thou,  thou,  art  the  man. 

What  does  the  third  person  denote  ? 

The  third  person  represents  an  object  as  spoken  of. 

Ex. — The  stars  shone  out  brilliantly  from  their  blue  depths.  He  knew  it 
was  what  she  wanted  him  to  buy.       I  am  a  friend  to  you. 


Exercises. 

niece  ;  ram  or  buck,  ewe  ;  sir,  madam  y  uncle,  aunt y  wizard,  witch  ; 
youth,  damsel  or  maiden  ;  bachelor,  maid  y  Charles,  Caroline. 

Abbot,  abbess  ;  actor,  actress  y  ar'biter,  ar'bitress  y  bar'on,  bar' on- 
ess  ;  benefac'tor,  benefac' tress  ;  count  or  earl,  countess  y  duke,  duch'' 
ess/  emperor,  empress;  enchant'er,  enchant' ress  ;  gov'ernor,  gov'- 
erness;  heir,  heiress;  host,  hostess  y  hunter,  huntress;  instructor, 
instructress ;  Jew,  Jewess ;  lion,  lioness  ;  marquis,  marchioness y 
negro,  negress ;  patron,  patroness ;  peer,  peeress ;  poet,  poetess  ; 
priest,  priestess  ;  prince,  princess  y  prior,  pri'oress  ;  prophet,  prophet- 
ess y  protector,  protectress  y  shep'herd,  shep'herdess  y  sor'cerer,  sor'- 
ceress  y  tiger,  tigress  y  tutor,  tutoress  y  vis'count,  vis' countess y 
widower,  widow  y  administrator,  administratrix y  exec'utor,  execu- 
trix y  testa'tor,  testatrix  y  he'ro,  her' dine  y  Joseph,  Jo'sephine  y  don, 
donna, y  sign'or,  signo'ra y  sultan,  sultana  or  sul'taness y  tzar,  tzari'- 
na  y  Augustas,  Augusta. 

tfords  Explained.— Person,  from  the  Latin  persofna,  a  mask ;  bor- 
rowed from  stage- playing,  in  which  different  masks,  or  styles  of  dress,  enabla  th« 
Baine  person  to  represent  different  persons  or  characters. 


14  NOUNS   AND   PRONOUJTS. 

C.  There  are  more  than  one  of  almost  every  kind  of  objects ;  and  in  speak- 
ing we  are  continually  referring  either  to  one  object  or  to  more,  of  the  different 
kinds  with  which  we  have  to  do ;  hence  wcrds  have  what  grammarians  call 
numbers.     What,  then,  is  number  t 

Number,  in  grammar,  is  that  property  of  words 
which  shows  whether  one  object  is  meant,  or  more 
than  one. 

There  are  two  numbers ;  the  singular  and  the  plural. 

What  does  the  singular  number  denote  ? 

The  singular  number  denotes  but  one. 

Ex. — Desk,  leaf,  boy,  Arthur,  swarm,  I,  thou,  yourself,  he,  she,  itself. 
What  does  the  plural  number  denote  ? 

The  p Sural  number  denotes  more  than  one. 

Ex. — Desks,  leaves,  boys,  swarms,  we,  our,  ye,  they,  them,  themselves. 
How  ia  the  plural  number  of  nouns  generally  formed  ? 

By  adding  s  to  the  singular. 

Ex. — Glove,  gloves ;  chair,  chairs ;  chimney,  chimneys  ;  nation,  nations. 


Exercises. 

He-goat,  she-goat;   buck-rabbit,  doe-rabbit;   cock-sparrow,   ken- 
sparrow  ;    man-servant,    maid-servant  /    male   descendants,   female 
descendants  /  Mr.  Reynolds,  Mrs.  Reynolds,  Miss  Reynolds. 
The  person,  and  why : — 

I,  you,  he,  we,  my,  myself,  us,  thee,  yourselves,  mine,  thine,  thy- 
self, himself,  themselves,  it,  she,  hers,  others ;  a  drooping  willow  ; 
my  dictionary ;  your  grammar.  I  am  the  captain,  sir.  We  pas- 
sengers have  poor  fare.  Then  said  I  to  him,  "  Well,  my  little 
friend,  how  fare  the  schoolboys  ?" 

My  mother  !  when  I  learned  that  thou  wast  dead, 
Say,  wast  thou  conscious  of  the  tears  I  shed  ? 
Hovered  thy  spirit  o'er  thy  sorrowing  son, 
Wretch  even  then,  life's  journey  just  begun  ? 
I  heard  the  bell  tolled  on  thy  funeral  day, 
.  I  saw  the  hearse  that  bore  thee  slow  away, 
And,  turning  from  my  nursery  window,  drew 
A  long,  long  sigh,  and  wept  a  last  adieu  ! — Cowper. 
dhange  into  the  other  persons  : — 

John   writes.       The  girls  study.       Henry,  you  may  play.       I 
William  Ringbolt  hold  myself  responsible.       Shall  Hannibal  com- 
pare himself  with  this  half-year  captain  ? 
The  number,  and  why : — 

Book,  books,  rose,  roses,  partridge,  partridges,  geese.  family,  fam. 
ilies,  scissors,  ashes,  letters,  love,  swarm,  hay,  honey,  molasses,  I,  we, 


NOUNS   AND  PRONOUNS.  15 

To  what  nouns  must  es  be  added,  to  make  them  plural  ? 

To  nouns  ending  with  s,  as,  z,  sh,  or  soft  cli  j  and 
also  to  nouns  ending  with  i,  0,  %  or  y,  preceded  each 
by  a  consonant. 

Ex. — Glass,  glasses ;  fox,  foxes ;  to'paz,  to'pazes ;  bush,  bushes  ;  church, 
churches;  al'kali,  al'kalles ;  negro,  negroes;  gnu,  gnues ;  story,  stories.  (Fia 
changed  to  i.     See  page  153.) 

Proper  nouns,  foreign  nouns,  and  unusual  nouns,  to  prevent  the  liability  of 
mistaking  them,  are  changed  as  little  as  possible,  and  hence  often  assume  s  only; 
as,  Leary,  the  Learys ;  Peri,  Peris ;  canto,  cantos ;  "  several  fos"  [or  to's]. 

Owing  to  their  foreign  tinge,  we  still  find,  in  good  use,  cantos,  duodecimos,  frescos,  grot- 
tos, halos,  juntos,  mementos,  octavos,  pianos,  porticos,  quartos,  salvos,  solos,  tyros,  zeros,  in 
stead  of  cantoes  from  canto,  grottoes  from  grotto,  etc.,  winch  are  also  coming  into  use. 

How  is  the  plural  of  compound  words  generally  expressed  ? 

By  making  plural  that  part  of  the  word  which  is 
described  by  the  rest. 

Ex. — Mouse-trap,  mouse-traps ;  spoonful,  spoonfuls]  brother-in-law,  brothers- 
in-law  ;  commander-in-chief,  commanders-in-chief. 

"When  the  title  Mr.,  Miss,  or  Dr.,  is  used  with  a  name,  how  is  the  whole  term  made  plural  ? 

By  making  plural  the  title  only. 

Mr.  Harper,  Messrs.  Harper  ;  Miss  Brown,  the  Misses  Brown  ;  Dr.  Lee,  Drs.  Lee. 

When  the  title  is  Mrs.,  or  when  the  word  two,  three,  etc.,  stands  before  the 
title,  the  latter  noun  is  made  plural.  "  The  Mrs.  Barlows.'1 — Irving.  "  The 
two  Miss  ScoUs  had  been  gathering  flowers." — Irving. 


Exercises. 

yon,  thou,  him,  themselves,  they,  his,  several,  one,  ones,  none,  ono 
another,  our,  ours,  my,  a,  an,  each  man,  either  man,  every  man, 
neither  road,  two,  a  two,  two  twos,  a  twin,  twins,  a  pair,  two  pair. 

Spell  the  plurals  of  the  singulars,  then  the  singulars  of  the  plurals : — 

Man,  mew;  woman,  women  ;  child,  children ;  ox,  oxen;  foot, feet ; 
goose,  geese;  tooth,  teeth;  mouse,  mice;  louse,  lice;  cow,  cows  or 
kine  ;  this,  these  ;  that,  those ;  I,  we  ;  thou,  ye;  he,  they. 

Brother,  brothers  (of  the  same  family),  brethren  (of  the  same  so- 
ciety)  ;  die,  dies  (stamps  for  coining),  dice  (small  cubes  for  gaming) ; 
fish,  fishes  (individuals),  fish  (quantity,  or  the  species)  ;  genius,  ge- 
niuses (men  of  genius),  genii  (spirits) ;  in'dex,  in'dexes  (tables  of  ref- 
erence), in' dices  (algebraic  signs)  ;  penny,  pennies  (pieces  of  money), 
pence  (how  much  in  value) ;  staff,  staves  (sticks — better,  staffs), 
staff*,  officers  ;  flagstaff,  flagstaff's  ;  distaff,  distaffs. 

Beef,  beeves  ;  calf,  calves ;  elf,  elves  ;  half,  halves ;  knife,  knives; 
leaf,  leaves;  life,  lives;  loaf,  loaves;  self,  selves;  sheaf,  sheaves; 
shelf,  shelves;  thief,  thieves;  wife,  wives;  wolf,  wolves;  wharf, 
wharfs  or  wharves.  Other  words  ending  withy  or  fe,  assume  merely 
i  :  Fife,  fifes  ;  skiff,  skiffs. 


16  NOUXS   AND  PRONOUNS. 

How  are  words  adopted  from  the  Latin  or  Greek  language,  made  plural ! 

The  ending  us  is  generally  changed  into  %  i  um  or 
on,  to  a;  is,  to  es ;  a,  to  ce  ;  and  #  or  ex,  to  ces  or  ices. 

Ex. — Stimulus,  stimuli ;  arca'num,  arca'na ;  crisis,  crises ;  vor'tex,  vor'tices. 

Some  nouns  do  not  change  their  form,  to  express  either  number ;  as,  Deer, 
sheep,  swine,  vermin,  grouse,  head  (cattle),  sail  (ships),  pair,  dozen,  series,  species, 
appara'tus,  corps,  means,  news  (generally  singular),  alms,  wages  (generally  plural), 
odds,  amends,  ethics,  mathematics,  etc. 

Some  nouns,  denoting  generally  objects  that  consist  of  two  or  many  parts, 
are  nearly  always  used  in  the  plural  number  only ;  as,  Tongs,  scissors,  snuffers, 
ashes,  stairs,  dregs,  pincers,  lungs,  trousers,  drawers,  hose,  bowels,  annals,  ar' chives, 
ides,  chops,  clothes,  thanks,  riches,  goods,  bitters,  victuals,  oats,  vetches,  aborig 'ines, 
mammalia,  etc. 

How  do  you  determine  the  number  of  a  collective  noun  that  is  singular  in  form  ? 

A  collective  noun  is  singular,  when  we  regard  the 
entire  collection  as  one  thing ;  plural,  when  we  refer 
to  the  individuals  composing  the  collection. 

Ex. — The  committee  was  large.       The  committee  were  not  unanimous. 


Exercises. 

Atlas,  atlases;  halo,  haloes;  folio,  folios;  torch,  torches; 
monarch,  monarchs ;  story,  stories ;  money,  moneys ;  German,  Ger- 
mans ;  Mussulman,  Mussulmans ;  larva,  larvae ;  lam/ina,  lam'ince ; 
minu'tia,  minu'tice  ;  alum'na,  alum'nee  ;  alum'nus,  alum'nl ;  ma'gus, 
magi;  ra'dius,  ra'dil ;  to' cus,  fo'cl;  nu'cleus,  nu'clel ;  arca'num, 
arca'na  ;  da'tura,  da'ta  ;  memorandum,  memoran'da  or  memoran- 
dums ;  stratum,  strata  ;  phenomenon,  phenom'ena  ;  sta'men,  stain' - 
ina  ;  ge'nus,  gen' era ;  axis,  axes ;  crisis,  crises ;  oasis,  o'ases ;  the'sis, 
the'ses  ;  pha'sis,  phases;  ellip'sis,  ellip'ses ;  em'phasis,  em' phases ; 
hypothesis,  hypoth'eses  ;  paren'thesis,  paren! theses  ;  synop'sis,  synop'-. 
ses ;  syn'thesis,  syntheses;  appen'dix,  appendices ;  beau,  beaux ; 
monsieur,  messieurs  ;  cherub,  cherubs  or  cherubim  ;  seraph,  seraphs 
or  ser'aphim  ;  bandit,  bandits  or  bandit' tl;  brother-in-law,  brothers- 
in-law;  sister-in-law,  sisters-in-law ;  court-martial,  courts-martial; 
aid-de-camp,  aids-de-camp  ;  billet-doux,  billets-doux;  cupful,  cupfuls  ; 
spoonful,  spoonfuls ;  man-servant,  men-servants ;  ignis  fatuus,  ignes 
fatul ;  Miss  Warner,  the  Misses  Warner;  Mr.  Hunter,  the  Messrs. 
Hunter  ;  Dr.  Hunter,  Drs.  Hunter. 

Words  Explained.— Singular,  single,  odd.  Plural,  from  the  Latin 
pit's,  more;  more  than  one.  Mr.  is  abbreviated  from  Mister;  Messrs.,  from  the 
French  Messieurs.  Case  ordinarily  means  state  or  condition.  delation,  how  one 
thing  is  to  another.  Sense,  meaning.  Von'strued,  arranged  according  to  the  sense. 
Independently,  having  nothing  to  do  with  others.  Ab'solutely,  absolved,  freed 
from  something.  Address,  speak  to.  Exclaim,  cry  out.  Participles  and  infin* 
Wives,  forms  of  the  verb.       Verbt  <t  word  expressing  action  or  state. 


2W)UNS   AND  PRONOUNS.  17 

d.  If  I  say,  "  Your  brother's  friend  sent  James  to  me ; 

Tour  friend's  brother  sent  me  to  James; 
.  My  brother's  friend  sent  James  to  you; 

James  sent  your  brother's  friend  to  me  ; 

I  sent  your  friend's  brother  to  James  ; 

You  sent  James  to  my  friend's  brother ;"  you  can  easily  see 
that  all  these  sentences  differ  much  from  one  another  in  meaning.  The  difference 
of  meaning  arises  from  the  different  relations  of  the  words  to  one  another,  and 
these  different  relations  are  called  cases.  That  objects  exist  or  act,  that  objects 
are  owned,  or  make  parts  of  other  objects,  and  that  objects  are  acted  upon,  are 
the  three  chief  conditions  of  things,  on  which  cases  are  based.  What,  then,  is 
case? 

Case  is  the  sense  or  form  in  which  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns are  construed  with  other  words,  to  express 
thought. 

There  are  three  cases;  the  nominative,  the  posses- 
sive, and  the  objective. 

What  does  the  nominative  case  denote  ? 

The  nominative  case  denotes  the  condition  of  a 
noun  or  pronoun  that  is  used  as  the  subject  of  a 
predicate. 

Ex. — John  struck  James.  (Who  struck  James  ?)  The  rose  is  beau- 
tiful. (What  is  beautiful  ?)  Fishes  swim  in  the  sea,  and  birds  fly  iu 
the  air.       Mary's  bunch  of  flowers         is  fading. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  is  also  in  the  nominative  case, 
when  it  is  used  independently  or  absolutely. 

Ex. — Indep  endently  :  "  John,  come  to  me ;"  "  Alas,  poor  YoricJc  /" 
"The  Pilgrim  Fathers, — where  are  they?"  "Merchants'  Bank."  Abso- 
lutely: The  tree  having  fallen,  we  returned ;"  "  Bonaparte  being  banished, 
peace  was  restored  ;"       "  To  become  a  scholar,  requires  exertion." 

Independently ;  used  in  addressing  persons  or  other  objects,  in  ex- 
claiming, or  in  simply  directing  attention  to  an  object.  Absolutely;  used 
before  a  participle,  or  after  a  participle  or  an  infinitive,  without  being  governed 
by  it  or  controlled  by  any  other  word. 


Exercises. 

Spell  the  plural  of  the  following  words : — 

Sofa,  larva,  house,  mouse,  feather-bed,  booth,  tooth,  ox,  box,  root, 
foot,  turf,  wolf,  genus,  genius,  isthmus,  trio,  cargo,  valley,  sally,  alley, 
ally,  rabbi,  crutch,  stomach,  trellis,  ellipsis,  Mr.  Jones,  Mrs.  Jones. 

Vt^ords  Explained*— Possessive,  owning.  Apostrophe,  turning  or  cut- 
ting off,  something  that  shows  omission :  kingis  crowne  has  become  Icing's  crown. 


>8  NOUNS   AND   PRONOUNS. 

What  does  the  possessive  case  denote? 

The  possessive  case  denotes  possession. 

Ex. — John's  horse.       My  slate.      The  children's  books.      Boys1  sports. 

Possession  may  be  past,  or  future  and  merely  intended,  as  well  as  present 
and  actual;  as,  "Webster's  Dictionary;"  "Men's  boots  for  sale  here."  The 
former  example  implies  origin  ;  the  latter,  fitness. 

What  is  the  regular  sign  of  the  possessive  case  ? 

An  apostrophe,  or  comma  above  the  line,  followed 
by  the  letter  s. 

Ex. — Mary's  slate.       Burns's  poems.       Men's  affairs. 
Is  the  possessive  *  always  expressed  ? 

It  is  omitted  from  plural  nouns  ending  with  s,  and 
sometimes  also  from  singular  nouns  ending  with  s,  or 
an  s-sound. 

Ex. — The  soldiers'  camp.       For  conscience'  sake. 

A  singular  noun  ending  with  an  s-sound,  should  generally  have  the  apostrophe 
and s, ;  as,  "Dennis's  Works." — Pope.  "Louis's  reign." — Macaulay.  "Charles's 
affairs." — Prescott.  It  is  often  better  to  use  of,  or  to  make  the  possessive  word 
an  adjective;  as,  "The  death  of  Socrates;"  "  Lucas  Place." 

"For  conscience'  sake,"  "For  goodness'  sake,"  etc.,  are  rather  idiomatic 
exceptions  to  the  rule,  than  fair  illustrations  of  a  general  principle. 

What  does  the  objective  case  denote  ? 

The  objective  case  denotes  the  condition  of  a 
noun  or  pronoun  that  is  used  as  the  object  of  a  verb 
or  preposition. 

Ex. — This  stream  turns  a  mill.  (Turns  what  ?)  The  water  flows  over  the 
dam.     (Over  what  ?)      I  saw  her  with  him  f     (Saw  whom  ?  with  whom  ?) 

The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  or  of  a  preposition,  is  the  noun  or  pronoun 
required  after  it  to  make  sense  ;  as,  "  I  rolled  a  stone  down  the  hill."  Here  stone 
ia  the  object  of  the  verb  rolled,  and  hill  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  down. 


Exercises. 

The  noun  or  pronoun,  and  why ;  then  the  case,  and  why : — 
John  found  Mary's  book.  Lucy's  lamb  nips  the  grass.  Fair 
blooms  the  lily.  He  wrote  his  name  in  his  book.  John  shot 
some  squirrels  in  your  father's  field.  Sweet  fountain,  once  again  I 
visit  thee.  The  Greeks  were  more  ingenious  than  the  Romans 
[were].       The  plough,  the  sword,  the  pen,  and  the  needle, — how 

W*ords  Explained,— Idiomat'k,  peculiar,  formed  by  custom  without 
regard  to  rules.  Principle,  a  rule  or  law,  a  truth  that  applies  to  many  particulars. 
Objective,  denoting  an  object ;  and  object,  something  thrown  in  the  way,  something 
aimed  at  or  affected.  Prep-o-si'-tion,  from  pre,  before,  and  positio,  placing  ;  a 
word  piaced  before  others  to  show  position  or  relation.  Repetition^  telling  again. 
Explanation,  telling  what  a  thing  is. 


NOUNS   AND   PRONOUNS.  19 

"When  must  a  noun  or  pronoun  agree  in  case  with  another  noun  or  pronoun  ? 

When  it  is  but  a  repetition  of  the  other,  or  when  it 
denotes,  by  way  of  explanation,  the  same  thing. 

Ex. — I,  1,  am  the  man.  Friends,  false  friends,  have  ruined  me.  Smith  is 
a  barber.       Smith  the  barber  is  my  neighbor. 

How  can  the  different  cases  of  nouns  be  distinguished  ? 

By  their  meanings  :  or,  the  nominative  may  be 
found  by  asking  a  question  with  who  or  what  before 
the  verb ;  the  objective,  with  whom  or  what  after  the 
verb ;  and  the  possessive  is  known  by  the  apostrophe. 

Ex. — "Mary  plucked  flowers  for  John's  sister."     Who  plucked? — plucked 

what  ? — for  whom  ? 

— '  ~.       » 

e.  Having  now  shown  yuu  what  properties  nouns  and  pronouns  have,  I 
Bhall  next  show  you,  briefly  and  regularly,  how  the  different  nouns  and  pronouns 
are  written  to  express  these  properties.     This  process  is  called  declension. 

What,  then,  is  it,  to  decline  a  noun  or  pronoun  ? 

To  decline  a  noun  or  pronoun,  is  to  show,  in  some 
regular  way,  what  forms  it  has  to  express  its  gram- 
matical properties. 

Observe  that  nouns  sometimes  remain  unchanged,  and  that  pronoun3  are 
sometimes  wholly  changed,  to  express  their  properties. 


Exercises. 

mighty  !       To  retreat  was  to  lose  all.     (What  was  what  ?)       I  know 

that  you  can  learn.    (I  know  what?)       Why  he  went,  is  plain.    (What 

is  plain  ?)       Promising  and  performing  are  two  different  things. 

On  that  day  of  desolation, 

Lady,  I  was  captive  made ; 

Bleeding  for  my  Christian  nation, 

By  the  walls  of  high  Belgrade. —  Campbell. 

Spell  the  possessive  singular ;  then  the  possessive  plural,  if  the  word  can  have  it  :— 

Sister,    (thus  :    S-i-s-sis — t-e-r-apostrophe-s-ter's — Sister's,)    John, 

day,  Sparks,  prince,  horse,  St.  James,  John  Henry  Thomson,  he,  one, 

who,  other,  she,  it,  court-martial,  brother-in-law,  bookkeeper  ;    the 

duke  of  Northumberland ;  Allen  and  Baker  ;  Morris  the  bookseller ; 

Morris,  the  bookseller. 

JW*ord8  Explained.— Decline',  to  chauge  from  one  state  or  form  into 
another.  Supersede' }  to  take  the  place  of,  because  preferred.  Style,  mode  of 
writing  or  speaking.  Authority  ;  right  to  govern  from  greater  merit,  or  through 
power  derived  from  others.  Emphat'ic,  expressing  an  idea  with  greater  force. 
JZeflex'ive,  turning  back  upon  itself,  that  the  act  or  relation  reverts  to  the  subject. 


20 


NOUNS   AND   PRONOUNS. 


DECLENSION  OF  NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS. 
Nouns. 


Singular. 
Nominative.    Possessive. 
Boy,  boy's, 


Man, 
Lady, 
Fox, 
John, 


1st  Pers. 
2d  Pers. 


mans, 
lady's, 
fox's, 
John's, 


boy; 

man; 

lady; 

fox; 

John. 


Plural. 

Nominative.     Possessive.  Objective 

boys,           boys',  boys, 

men's,  men. 

ladies',  ladies. 


men, 

ladies, 

foxes, 


foxes'. 


foxes. 


Pronouns 


Mm. 

i, 


Singular. 
Poss. 


Obj.       Nom. 


my  or  mine,       me  ;      we, 


Thou,   thy  or  thine,      thee ;    ye,    ) 
You,     your  or  yours,   you  ;     you,  J 


Plural. 
Poss.  Obj. 

our  or  ours,     us. 

your  or  yours,  you 


f  Mas.  He,        his,  him 

3d  Pers.  \  Fern.  She,  her  or  hers,  her  ;  J-  they,  their  or  theirs,  them. 
C  Neat,  It,  its,  it ; 


1. 

2. 
3. 

Nom.  or  Obj. 
Myself  (or  ourself) ; 
Thyself  or  yourself; 
Himself,  herself,  itself; 

Nom.  or  Obj. 
ourselves, 
yourselves, 
themselves. 

Nom.        Poss.           Obj. 

Nom. 

Poss.          Obj. 

One,        one's,        one ; 
Other,    other's,     other ; 

ones, 
others, 

ones',        ones, 
others',     others. 

or  Plur.  • 

'  Who,          whose, 
Which,       whose, 
That,           whose, 
What, 
As,             

.  None,         

whom. 

which. 

that. 

what. 

as. 

none. 

( — ever  or  soever.) 
u 

Sing. 

K 

Decline  oohn,  man,  boy,  lady,  fox,  farmer,  Benjamin,  city. 
Decline  /,  thou,  you,  he,  she,  it,  myself,  thyself,  yourself,  himself,  herself,  itself 
one,  other,  who,  whoever,  whosoever,  which,  whichever,  what,  that,  as,  none. 


Thou  is  now  superseded,  in  common  usage,  by  you.     Thou  is  still  pre* 
ferred  in  addressing  the  Deity,  and  often  in  Scriptural  or  poetic  style. 


NOUNS   AND  PRONOUNS.  21 

We  may  include,  with  the  speaker,  the  person  addressed,  and  the  person 
spoken  of.  You  may  include,  with  the  person  addressed,  the  person  spoken  of. 
You,  he,  and  I*=*we ;  thou  or  you  and  he*=you. 

Editors,  in  speaking  of  themselves  editorially,  generally  prefer  we  to  I.  This 
use  of  the  plural  pronoun  denotes  greater  modesty  or  authority  ;  for  it  implies 
that  the  speaker  is  not  alone  in  his  opinion. 

Owr§,  yours,  Iters,  etc.,  are  each  equivalent  to  the  simple  possessive  pro- 
noun and  a  noun  ;  as,  "  This  is  my  hat,  and  that  is  yours,"  i.  e.,  your  hat. 

It  sometimes  denotes  merely  the  state  or  condition  of  things;  as,  "It 
snows;"  "It  was  moonlight  on  the  Persian  sea;"  "It  is  too  dark  here  to  read." 
Sometimes  it  introduces  a  sentence,  and  is  explained  by  a  following  word,  phrase, 
or  clause;  as,  "  It  is  he ;"  " It  is  she  ;"  "  It  was  they ;"  "  It  is  mean  to  take  advan- 
tage of  another's  distress ;"  "It  is  perfectly  plain  that  a  straight  line  must  be  tiie 
shortest  distance  between  two  points."     (What  is  plain  ?) 

It  is  sometimes  applied  to  creatures  whose  sex  is  not  obvious  or  not  impor- 
tant ;  as,  "  We  found  a  young  fawn,  and  caught  it."  The  sex,  most  gramma- 
rians say,  is  disregarded  in  such  instances,  and  the  words  are  neuter.  But,  sinco 
the  nouns  must,  in  such  cases,  be  nearly  always  of  the  common  gender,  and 
since  we  can  say,  "It  is  he,"  "It  is  she,"  it  may  be  as  well  to  say  it  is  of  the 
common  gender.  ("The  tiger  broke  its  chain,"  seems  less  proper  to  me  than, 
"The  tiger  broke  his  chain.") 

The  compound  personal  pronouns  of  the  first  and  the  second  person  are 
composed  of  the  simple  possessive  pronouns  and  self  or  selves ;  those  of  the  third 
person,  of  the  objective  pronouns  and  self  or  selves.  These  pronouns  are  used 
only  in  the  nominative  and  the  objective  case,  and  they  are  either  emphatic  or 
reflexive  in  sense ;  as,  "  Ho  himself  waited  on  his  guest ;"  "  She  deceived  her- 
self." To  express  possession  emphatically,  own  is  used  with  the  ample  posses- 
sive pronoun ;  as,  "  This  is  my  own  affair." 

None  (no-one)  may  be  used  either  as  singular  or  plural.  Each  other  properly 
relates  to  two  only ;  one  another,  to  more. 


Exercises. 

What  is  the  objective  corresponding  to — 

I  ? — thou  ? — we  ? — ye  ? — he  ? — she  ? — it  ? — they  % — you  ? — who  ? 
What  is  the  nominative  corresponding  to — 

Me  ?  —  us  ?  —  thee  ?  —  him  ?  —  whom  ?— -her  ? — hers  ? — them  ? — ■ 
themselves  ? — herself? — it  ? — which  ? 
Form  the  compound  pronoun  : — 
My,  our,  thy,  yourj  him,  her,  it,  oue,  them,  who,  which,  what. 

Of  what  gender,  person,  number,  and  case  is  each  of  the  following  pronouns  ? — 
Him,  his,  its,  he,  them,  it,  I,  you,  thy,  their,  she,  thou,  me,  your, 
us,  they,  my,  mine,  thine,  yours,  it,  hers,  others,  theirs,  we,  thee,  our, 
ours,  ye,  myself,  ourself,  themselves,  ourselves,  thyself,  yourselves, 
yourself,  himself,  itself,  herself,  one,  none,  one's,  ones',  other,  others', 
who,  what,  which,  whatever. 

2 


22  ARTICLES. 


3.  ARTICLES. 


If  1  say,  "Givo  me  a  book,"  you  understand  that  any  book  will  answer  my 
purpose ;  but  if  I  say,  "  Give  me  the  book,"  you  understand  that  I  want  somo 
particular  book.  If  I  say,  "  Missouri  is  north  of  Arkansas,"  I  mean  States ;  but 
if  I  say,  "  The  Missouri  is  north  of  the  Arkansas,"  I  mean  rivers.  These  little 
words,  a  and  the,  which  often  have  so  important  an  effect  on  the  sense  of  nouns, 
are  called  articles.     What,  thon,  is  an  article  f 

An  article  is  a  word  placed  before  a  noun,  to  show 
how  the  noun  is  applied. 

Ex. — Man  is  made  for  society ;  but  a  man  naturally  prefers  the  man  whoso 
temper  and  inclinations  best  suit  his  own. 

How  many  articles  are  there,  and  what  are  they  ? 

Two :  the,  the  definite  article ;  and  a  or  an,  the 

indefinite  article. 

What  does  the  definite  article  show  ? 

The  definite  article  shows  that  some  particular 
object  or  group  is  meant. 

Ex. — The  horse,  the  horses,  the  stage,  the  Connecticut ;  the  green  meadows  j 
the  iron-bound  bucket ;  the  brave  Pulaski. 
What  does  the  indefinite  article  show  ? 

The  indefinite  article  show3  that  no  particular 
one  of  the  kind  is  meant. 

Ex. — A  bird,  a  mouse,  an  apple,  a  cherry,  a  carriage ;  an  idle  boy. 
now  do  a  and  an  differ  ? 

In  application  only ;  in  meaning,  they  are  the  same. 

Where  is  an  used  ? 

Before  words  beginning  with  a  vowel  sound. 

Ex. — An  article,  an  enemy,  an  inch,  an  urn,  an  hour,  an  honor. 


Exercises. 

The  article,  and  why ;  whether  definite  or  indefinite,  and  why ;  and  to  what  it 
"belongs : — 

The  roses  in  the  garden.  The  rose  is  a  beautiful  flower.  A 
fish  from  the  river.  A  daughter  of  a  duke.  The  daughter  of  the 
duke.       A  daughter  of  the  duke.       An  eagle's  nest. 

Words  Explained,— Article,  joint ;  because,  in  the  Greek  language, 
from  which  the  word  is  taken,  it  sometimes  encloses  a  noun  on  each  side,  as  two 
joints  enclose  a  limb,  or  as  that  encloses  man  in  the  expression,  "  that  man  that  I 
saw."  Understand',  see  with  the  mind.  Definite,  setting  bounds  to,  Indefiyr 
ite,  not  definite.      Application,  a  putting  to  something  else. 


ADJECTIVES.  23 

Where  is  a  used  ? 

Before  words  beginning  with  a  consonant  sound. 

Ex. — A  bgnquet,  a  cucumber,  a  dunce,  a  fox,  a  horse,  a  jug,  a  king,  a  lion, 
a  youth,  a  university,  a  eulogy ;  a  one-horse  carriage. 

4.  ADJECTIVES. 

The  nouns  and  pronouns,  as  you  remember,  denote  objects.  But  our  regard 
for  objects  depends  not  a  little  on  their  qualities  and  circumstances  ;  and  hence 
there  is  a  large  class  of  words  to  express  these,  for  all  the  various  purposes  of 
life.  The  word  apple,  for  instance,  denotes  something  that  may  be  red,  large, 
ripe,  mellow,  juicy.  And  when  I  say,  "  that  apple,  this  apple,  every  apple,  four 
apples,  the  fourth  apple,"  the  slanting  words  show,  without  expressing  quality, 
more  precisely  what  I  mean.  These  qualifying  and  designating — these  descrip- 
tive and  definitive  words,  which  generally  add  an  idea  to  that  of  the  noun,  are 
therefore  called  adjectives.     What,  then,  is  an  adjective  t 

An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  qualify  or  limit 
the  meaning  of  a  noun  or  pronoun. 

Ex. — Green,  good,  lazy,  tall,  wise,  religious.  A  bay  horse ;  a  sharp  knife ; 
a  sharper  knife ;  a  bright  day ;  golden  clouds ;  a  gold  watch  ;  Missouri  apples ; 
a  rustling  aspen ;  that  sun-tipped  elm ;  a  boy  nine  years  old,  who  is  sick. 

Adjectives  may  be  divided  into  two  classes ;  de~ 
scriptive  and  definitive.  In  stead  of  these  words,  qual- 
ifying and  specifying  may  also  be  used. 

What  is  a  descriptive  adjective  ? 

A  descriptive  adjective  describes  or  qualifies. 

Ex. — A  rapid  river ;  the  blue  sky ;  a  modest  woman.  She  is  beautiful, 
amiable,  and  intelligent.  The  rippling  brook ;  waving  woods ;  a  broken  pitcher. 
The  last  three  adjectives,  and  others  like  them,  are  called  participial  adjectives. 


Exercises. 

Place  the  proper  indefinite  article  before  each  of  the  following  words  or 
phrases : — 

Razor,  house,  knife,  humming-bird,  chicken,  ounce,  insult,  unit, 
ox,  ball,  hundred,  African  ;  interesting  story ;  humble  cottage;  use- 
ful instrument ;  honest  man  ;  honorable  deed. 

Jf^&yds  Explained.— Ad'jective,  from  the  Latin  ad,  to,  and  jectus, 
thrown  ;  thrown  or  joined  to  something  else,  adding  an  idea  to.  Quality,  tfc  b 
nature  of  a  thing  for  a  long  time.  Condition,  the  nature  of  a  thing  for  a  short 
time.  Circumstances,  surroundings,  what  accompanies  the  main  thing ;  thus, 
when  an  act  is  done,  the  time,  place,  manner,  moans,  etc.,  are  its  circumstances. 
Designating,  pointing  out.  Descriptive,  telling  what  something  is.  Definitive, 
showing  which  or  how  many.  Limits,  sets  bounds  to  the  meaning.  Modifies, 
affects  or  varies  the  meaning.      Principal,  chief. 


ADJECTIVES. 


"What  is  a  definitive  adjective  ? 

A  definitive  adjective  merely  limits  or  modifies. 

Ex. — Four  peaches;  all  peaches;  some  peaches;  this  peach. 
Which  are  the  principal  definitive  adjectives  ? 

All,  any,  both,  certain,  each,  every,  either,  else,  few, 
many,  many  a,  much,  neither,  no,  one,  other,  own, 
same,  some,  such,  that,  this,  very,  zvhat,  which,  and 
yon  or  yonder. 

Also,  one,  two,  three,  etc. ;  first,  second,  third,  etc. 

Nearly  all  the  adjectives  of  the  first  class  are  usually  called  pronominal  adjec- 
tives, some  of  them  being  occasionally  used  as  pronouns ;  and  those  of  the  sec- 
ond class  are  called  numeral  adjectives.  Since  we  may  refer  to  objects  definitely, 
indefinitely,  or  distributively,  the  pronominal  adjectives  are  accordingly,  some  of 
them,  definite  or  demonstrative,  as  this,  that,  yonder ;  some,  indefinite,  as  any,  some, 
other  ;  and  some,  distributive,  as  each,  every,  either,  neither,  many  a.  And  since 
we  may  either  count  or  number,  some  of  the  numeral  adjectives  are  called  cardi- 
nal, as  one,  two,  three ;  and  the  others,  ordinal,  as  first,  second,  third. 

Either  and  neither  properly  relate  to  one  of  two ;  any,  any  one,  or  none,  should 
be  applied  to  more.     This  refers  to  the  nearer  of  two ;  that,  to  the  more  distant. 


Since  the  same  quality  may  exist  in  different  objects,  and  in  the  same  degree 
or  in  different  degrees, — as,  "  red  cheeks,  red  rose3,  red  hair,  redder  cheeks,  the 
reddest  roses," — adjectives  have  what  grammarians  call  the  degrees  of  comparison. 
"What,  then,  is  meant,  in  grammar,  by  comparison  ? 

Comparison,  in  grammar,  denotes  the  forms  in 
which  adjectives  and  adverbs  are  expressed,  to  show 
the  quality  and  its  degrees. 

There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison ;  the  positive, 
the  comparative,  and  the  superlative. 


Exercises. 

The  adjective,  and  why ;  whether  descriptive  or  definitive,  and  why ;  and  to 
\ohat  it  belongs : — 

The  blue  sky.  The  sky  is  blue.  An  aspiring  man.  A 
modest  and  beautiful  woman,  with  eyes  bright,  blue,  and  affectionate. 
The  night  grew  darker  and  darker.  That  field  has  been  in  cultiva- 
tion four  years.  The  first  car  is  not  full,  having  but  one  man  in  it. 
The  landscape  was  fresh  with  dew  and  bright  with  morning  light. 
The  rosy -fingered  Morn.       The  star-powdered  galaxy.      The  apples 

W*OI*<fs  Explained, — Pronom'inal,  resembling  a  pronoun.  Distrifr- 
utively,  taken  one  by  one.  Demon' strative,  pointing  out  exactly  what  is  meant. 
Numeral,  expressing  number.  Cardinal,  chief,  the  most  important  or  common. 
Ordinal,  expressing  order.      Degree,  a  step  or  grade. 


ADJECTIVES.  25 

How  does  the  positive  degree  describe  an  object  ? 

The  positive   degree  ascribes  to   an   object   the 
quality  simply,  or  an  equal  degree  of  it. 

Ex. — High,  rocky,  polite,  black,  prudent ;  as  white  as  snow. 
How  does  the  comparative  degree  describe  an  object  ? 

The  comparative  degree  ascribes  to  an  object 
the  quality  in  a  higher  or  a  lower  degree. 

Ex. — Higher,  rockier,  politer,  better,  more  prudent,  less  prudent. 
How  does  the  superlative  degree  describe  an  object  ? 

The  superlative  degree  ascribes  to  an  object  the 
quality  in  the  highest  or  the  lowest  degree. 

Ex. — Highest,  rockiest,  politest,  best,  most  prudent,  least  prudent. 

How  are  adjectives  of  one  syllable  compared,  to  express  increase  of  the  quality  ? 

By  adding  er  or  est  to  the  word  in  the  positive 
degree. 

Ex. — Pos.  great,  comp.  greater,  superl.  greatest ;  wise,  wiser,  wisest.   See  p.  153. 
What  adjectives  of  two  syllables  are  compared  by  annexing  er  and  est  t 

Adjectives  of  two  syllables  ending  in  y  or  Ze,  or 
accented  on  the  second  syllable. 

Ex. — Pos.  lovely,  comp.  lovelier,  superL  loveliest;  able,  abler,  ablest',  serene, 
serener,  serenest. 

How  do  wo  compare  other  adjectives  of  two  syllables,  all  adjectives  of  more 
syllables,  and  sometimes  adjectives  of  any  length  ? 

Other  adjectives  of  two  syllables,  all  adjectives  of 
more  syllables,  and  sometimes  adjectives  of  one  syl- 
lable, are  compared  by  placing  more  and  most  before 
the  positive. 

Ex. — Pos.  beautiful,  comp.  more  beautiful,  superL  most  beautiful ;  active,  more 
active,  most  active ;  unlucky,  more  unlucky,  most  -unlucky.     The  more  nice  and 
elegant  parts. — Johnson.       By  far  the  most  rich  and  copious. — Pope. 
A  foot  more  light,  a  step  more  true, 
Ne'er  from  tho  heath-flower  dashed  the  dew. — Scott. 


Exercises. 

boiled  soft.  Now  fairer  blooms  the  drooping  rose.  Jlis  hammock 
swung  loose  at  the  sport  of  the  wind.  He  is  asleep.  This  is  a 
broad,  deep,  clear,  swift,  and  winding  river. 

fforefs  Explained. — Positive,  laid  down,^  certain,  referring  to  nothing 
else.  Compar'atvoe,  reckoned  by  comparison.  Superlative,  from  the  Latin 
super,  over,  beyond,  and  laius,  carried  ;  beyond  all  othew.  Irregxilar,  not  accord- 
ing to  rule,  differing  from  most  of  its  kind.      Propriety,  good  sense  as  to  fitness. 


20 


ADJECT!  VES. 


Some  words  are  expressed  in  the  superlative  degree,  by  annexing  most  to 
them ;  a3,  Inmost,  innermost,  utmost  (outmost),  uppermost,  nethermost. 

A  high  degree  of  the  quality,  without  implying  direct  comparison,  is  ex- 
pressed by  very,  exceedingly,  a  most,  etc. ;  as,  Very  respectful,  exceedingly  polite, 
a  most  ridiculous  affair. 

Some  adjectives  aro  not  compared  according  to  the  foregoing  rules,  and  are 
therefore  said  to  be  irregular.     The  following  is  a  list : — 


Positive.               Compar. 

Superl. 

Positive. 

Compar. 

Superl. 

Good,                    better, 

best. 

Hind, 

hinder, 

hindmost. 

Bad,  ill,  or  evil,    worse, 

worst. 

Far, 

farther, 

farthest. 

Much  or  many,    more, 

most. 

(Forth,* 

further, 

furthest. 

Little,                    less, 

least. 

Near, 

nearer, 

nearest,  or  next. 

Fore,                    former, 

foremost,  or 

Late, 

later,  latter, 

latest,  or  last. 

first. 

Old, 

older,  elder, 

oldest,  or  eldest. 

Elder  and  eldest  are  applied  to  persons  only;  older  and  oldest,  to  persons  or 

things.     Later  and  latest  refer  to  time  ;  latter  and  last,  generally  to  order  in  place. 

How  are  adjectives  compared  when  we  wish  to  express  decrease  of  the  quality? 

By  less  and  least 

Ex. — Wise,  less  wise,  least  wise ;  arrogant,  less  arrogant,  least  arrogant. 

A  little  of  the  quality  may  bo  expressed  by  annexing  ish  to  the  positive,  or 
by  placing  before  it,  rather,  somewhat,  etc. ;  as,  Black,  blackish;  salt,  saltish; 
disagreeable,  somewliat  disagreeable ;  young,  rather  young. 

Can  all  adjectives  be  compared  ? 

Some  can  not  be  compared  with  propriety. 

Ex. — Eternal,  straight,  equal,  perpendicular,  two-edged,  speechless,  four. 


Exercises. 

Compare,  of  the  following  adjectives,  those  which  can  be  compared : — 
"Wise,  studious,  near,  good,  evil,  melodious,  high,  tuneful,  sauc}; 
eloquent,  expressive,  lovely,  nimble,  late,  many,  much,  few,  little,  old, 
glowing,  accomplished,  expert,  half-finished,  full,  counterfeit,  grace- 
ful, meagre,  worthless,  bottomless,  fundamental,  ornamental,  vernal, 
green,  sluggish,  sunburnt,  free,  first. 

Mention  and  spell  the  three  degrees  of  comparison  : — 

Strong,  weak,  light,  gay,  rough,  nice,  coarse,  fierce,  white,  ripe, 
thin,  slim,  dim,  fit,  hot,  fat,  glad,  big,  droll,  dry,  sprightly,  manly, 
gentle,  feeble,  noble,  idle,  discreet,  remote,  sublime,  profound. 

Compare  by  using  less  and  least  : — 

Broad,  convenient,  confident,  oily,  troublesome,  thick,  joyful,  sor- 
rowful, exorbitant,  exact,  indulgent,  handsome. 

Join  suitable  adjectives  to  each  of  the  following  nouns : — 

Moon,  field,  fountain,  trees,  garden,  horse,  willow,  man,  woman, 
pen,  ink,  day,  wood,  boys,  thoughts,  feelings,  actions,  conduct. 


VERBS.  27 

Good  writers,  however,  sometimes  compare  such  adjectives,  when  they  do 
not  take  them  in  their  full  sense.  "  Our  sight  is  the  most  perfect  of  our  senses." 
. — Addison.  This  means  that  it  approaches  nearer,  than  the  rest,  to  perfection, 
"And  love  is  still  an  emptier  name." — Goldsmith. 

Is  the  word  which  the  adjective  qualifies  or  limits,  always  expressed  ? 

It  is  not ;  but,  in  parsing,  it  must  be  supplied. 

Ex. — "  These  apples  are  better  than  those"  [apples].  "  The  idle  [persons] 
are  generally  mischievous."       "  Nearly  all  [the  soldiers]  were  captured." 

5.   VERBS. 

If  we  loot  into  the  world,  wo  shall  find,  that,  to  the  many  different  beings 
und  things  denoted  by  nouns  and  pronouns,  belong  not  only  many  different 
qualities,  denoted  by  adjectives,  but  also  many  different  motions,  actions,  and 
States  of  existence,  which  are  expressed  by  certain  words  called  verbs ;  as,  John 
reads,  writes,  runs,  and  plays.  What,  then,  is  a  verb,  or  what  is  its  chief  use  in 
language  ? 

A  verb  is  a  word  used  to  affirm  something  of  a 
subject. 

Ex. — The  wind  blows.  The  rose  blooms.  The  tree  is  dead.  Brutus 
stabbed  Caesar.  Caesar  was  stabbed  by  Brutus.  Do  you  not  study?  Do 
(you)  study  diligently.     (For  the  meaning  of  the  word  affirm,  see  page  4.) 

What  must  every  verb  denote? 

Some  kind  of  action  or  state. 


When  verbs  are  actually  used  to  express  affirmations,  they  are  called  finite 
verbs;  but  there  are  two  forms  of  the  verb  which  do  not  express  affirmations, 
and  which  are  called  the  participle  and  the  infinitive :  as,  Writing,  written,  being 
written,  having  written,  having  been  written ;  to  ivriie,  to  have  written,  to  be  writ- 
ten,  to  have  been  written. 

Exercises. 

The  verbs,  and  why : — 

The  sun  rises.  Saddle  your  horse.  Bees  collect  honey. 
Honey  is  collected  by  bees.  The  bird  flutters.  The  workmen 
have  built  the  house.  Pinks  are  fragrant.  The  thunder  was 
rolling.  The  problems  should  have  been  solved.  The  mill  can 
not  grind  with  the  water  that  has  passed.  Riches  are  got  with 
pain,  kept  with  care,  and  lost  with  grief.  Drunkenness  makes  a 
man's  eyes  red,  bloats  his  face,  empties  his  purse,  wastes  his  prop- 
erty, poisons  his  blood,  destroys  his  digestion,  blunts  his  feelings, 
corrupts  his  body  and  mind,  disgraces  his  family,  and  shortens  his  life. 

Ff*©rifs  Explained*— Verb  means  word,  or,  pre-eminently,  the  word: 
grammarians  have  called  this  part  of  speech  so,  because  it  makes  the  chief  part  of 
e  very  grammar,  or  because  it  is  the  chief  word  of  language.  States  of  existence,  hevr 
tilings  are.      Finite  verb,  a  verb  that  must  be  affirmed  of  a  nominative. 


28  VERBS. 

What,  then,  ia  a  participle  f 

A  participle  is  a  form  of  the  verb,  that  merely 
assumes  the  act  or  state,  and  is  generally  construed 
like  an  adjeotive. 

A  tree,  bending  with  fruit.  (A  tree,  full  of  fruit.)  The  man  was  found 
imprisoned.    (The  man  was  found  dead.)    John  is  studying.     (John  is  studious.) 

What  is  an  infinitive  t 

An  infinitive  is  a  form  of  the  verb,  that  begins 
generally  with  to,  and  expresses  no  affirmation. 

Ex. — An  opportunity  to  study.       He  is  obliged  to  sell.      It  is  too  dark  io 
travel.      He  seems  to  have  been  disappointed. 
Of  how  many  words  may  a  verb  consist  ? 

Of  as  many  as  four. 

Ex. — Eagles  soar.  The  house  was  built.  The  mail  may  have  arrived. 
These  'lessons  should  have  been  learned.       To  have  been  writing. 


Almost  every  verb  may  be  expressed  in  a  great  variety  of  ways  or  forms ; 
thus,  from  write  we  have  writing,  wrote,  written,  writes,  wrileth,  wriiest,  to 
write,  to  have  written,  to  be  written,  to  have  been  written,  to  be  writing,  to  have  been 
writing,  having  written,  having  been  written,  is  written,  was  written,  should  be  writ- 
ten, is  writing,  was  writing,  can  write,  must  write,  will  write,  shall  write,  would 
write,  should  write,  may  write,  might  write,  may  be  written,  may  be  writing,  may 
have  been  writing,  might  have  been  written,  mightst  have  been  writing,  etc.,  etc. 

Now,  that  we  may  be  enabled  to  master  all  these  different  forms, — under- 
stand their  meanings,  and  thus  be  enabled  to  use  them  correctly, — grammarians 
have  found  it  best  to  divide  verbs  into  certain  classes,  and  also  to  regard  them 
as  having  certain  properties. 

How  are  verbs  classified  ?  I  tOTOL 

Into  regular  and  irregular,  with  reference  to  their 
Into  transitive  and  intransitive,  with  reference  to 
their  meaning  or  use. 

What  is  a  regular  verb  ? 

A  regular  verb  takes  the  ending  ed,  to  form  its 
preterit  and  its  perfect  participle. 

Ex. — Present  play,  peterit  played,  perfect  participle  played;  move,  moved, 
moved;  regret,  regretted,  regretted.  (See  page  153.)  In  stead  of  preterit,  tho 
pupil  may  also  say  past,  a  less  appropriate  but  more  euphonic  word. 

JW^ords  Explained* — Par'ticiple,  partaking  of;  having  the  nature  of  a 
verb  and  of  an  adjective  or  a  noun.  Con'strued  like  an  adjective,  arranged  in  the 
same  way  with  other  words  of  a  sentence.  Infin'itive,  from  in,  not,  andJinUus, 
bounded  ;  not  bound,  free,  not  obliged  to  have  a  nominative.  Regular,  according 
to  rule,  like  most  of  its  kind.      Fuphon'ic,  agreeable  in  sound. 


VERBS. 


29 


What  is  an  irregular  verb  ? 

An  irregular  verb  does  not  take  the  ending  ed, 
to  form  its  preterit  and  its  perfect  participle. 

Ex.— Present  see,  preterit  saw,  perfect  participle  seen ;  speak,  spoke,  spoken. 
Which  are  the  principal  parts  of  the  verb,  or  those  from  which  all  the  other 
parts  can  be  formed  ? 

The  principal  parts  are  the  present,  or  the  simplest 
form  given  in  a  dictionary ;  the  preterit,  or  the  sim- 
plest form  that  affirms  a  past  fact ;  and  the  perfect 
participle,  or  the  form  that  makes  sense  with  the  word 
having  or  being. 

Ex. — Present,  walk,  write;  pret,  (T)  walked,  (I)  wrote;  perf.  part.,  having 
walked,  being  written.  To  the  principal  parts  given,  may  be  added  the  present 
participle;  which,  since  it  ends  always  with  ing,  is  too  well  known  to  need  men- 
tioning.    It  may  be  mentioned,  however,  before  the  perfect  participle. 


List   of  Irregular   Verbs.* 

The  following  catalogue  shows  the  principal  parts  of  all  the  irregular  verbs. 
When  the  pupil  has  learned  these,  he  will  also  know  the  principal  parts  of  all  the 
other  verbs,  which  must  be  regular.  He  must  not  infer,  however,  from  the  word 
irregular,  that  these  words  are  a  mere  straggling  offshoot  from  the  language ;  for 
they  are  really  the  very  core  or  pith  of  it. 


I.  The  Two  Past  Forms  Different. 
Present.  Preterit,  or  Pant.  Perfect  Part.  I  Present.  Preterit,  or  Past. 
Arise,  arose,  arisen. 


Awake, 

Be  oram,        was, 
Bear  bore, 

(bring forth?),  bare, 
Bear  {carry),  bore, 


,  awaked, 

awoke»  *•>  awoke.* 


been, 
born, 
borne. 


|  Beat, 

Become, 
Befall, 

Beget, 
Begin, 


beat, 

became, 

befell, 

begot, 

begat,* 

began, 


Perfect  Part, 

beaten, 

beat. 

become. 

befallen. 

begotten, 

begot. 

begun. 


IWords  Explained,*— Prefer  it,  from  the  Latin  prater,  past,  and  itus, 
gone ;  gone  by  or  past.  Perfect,  from  the  Latin  per,  through,  and  fectus,  made ;  made 
throughout,  finished.  The  present  is  either  the  present  indicative,  or  the  present 
infinitive  without  to.  According  to  Greek  and  Latin  dictionaries,  it  is  the  former  ; 
according  to  Teutonic  or  old  English  dictionaries,  it  is  the  latter.  Registered; 
put  in  order,  so  as  to  be  easily  found.  Cat'alogue,  a  regular  list.  Ancient,  used 
long  ago.  Poet'ic,  used  by  poets.  Defective,  wanting.  Re-dun' -dant,  overflow- 
ing, having  more  than  enough.      Be  was  formerly  used  for  am,  are,  is,  etc. 

*  In  using  irregular  verbs,  we  are  liable  to  error  for  the  most  part  only  in  the  use  of  those 
whose  preterit  anil  whose  perfect  participle  arc  not  alike.  Those  verbs  have  therefore  been 
given  first,  and  separate  from  the  rest,  that  they  may  be  learned  perfectly.  R.  denotes  that 
the  regular  form  may  also  be  used  in  stead  of  the  other.  *  denotes  that  the  form  under  it  is 
seldom  used,  being  either  ancient,  poetic,  or  of  late  introduction.  The  form  supposed  to  be 
of  the  best  present  usage,  is  placed  first.  The  second  form  of  some  verbs  is  preferable,  when 
applied  in  a  certain  way  ;  as,  "freighted  with  spices  and  silks,"  "fraught  with  mischief;" 
"thunderstruck."  u  sorrow -stricken."—  Commit  to  memory  the  unmarked  forms  only. 


30 


VERBS. 


Present.    Preterit,  or  Past. 

Perfect  Pari. 

Present.    Preterit,  or  Past. 

Perfect  Part. 

Bid, 

bid, 

bid, 

Heave, 

heaved, 

heaved, 

bade, 

bidden. 

hove, 

hoven.* 

Bite, 

bit, 

bitten,  bit. 

Hew, 

hewed, 

hewn,  r. 

Blow, 

blew, 

blown. 

Hide, 

hid, 

hidden,  hid, 

Break 

broke, 

broken, 

Hold, 

held, 

held, 

brake,* 

broke.* 

i 

holden."* 

Chide, 

chid, 

chidden, 

Know, 

knew, 

known. 

chid. 

Lade  (load), 

laded, 

laden,  r. 

Choose, 

chose, 

chosen. 

Lie  (repose), 

%, 

lain. 

Cleave 

cleaved, 

cleaved. 

(Lie,  speak  falsely  ;  regular.) 

(adhere), 

clave,'* 

Mow, 

mowed, 

mown,  r. 

Cleave 

cleft,  clove,  cleft, 

proved, 

{split), 

clave, 

cloven. 

Prove, 

proved, 

proven.* 

Come, 

came, 
crowed, 

come. 

Rend, 

rent, 

rent,  R.d* 
rode, 

Crow, 

crew, 

crowed. 

Ride, 

rode, 

ridden. 

Dare 

dared, b 

rang, 

(venture), 

durst, 

dared. 

Ring, 

rung, 

rung. 

(Dare,  challenge;  regular.) 

Rise, 

rose, 

risen. 

dived, 

Rive, 

rived, 

riven,  r.* 

Dive, 

dove,* 

dived. 

Run, 

ran, 

run. 

Do 

did. 

done. 

Saw, 

sawed, 

sawn,  r. 

(principal  verb), 

See, 

saw, 

seen. 

Draw, 

drew, 

drawn. 

Seethe, 

seethed, 

seethed, 

drunk, 

sod, 

sodden. 

Drink, 

drank, 

drank.* 

Shake, 

7 

shook, 

shaken. 

Drive, 

drove, 

driven. 

shaped, 

Eat, 

ate,  eat, 

eaten,  eat* 

Shape, 

shaped, 

shapen.* 

Fall, 

fell, 

fallen. 

shaved, 

Fly, 

flew, 

flown. 

Shave, 

shaved, 

shaven. 

Forbear, 

forbore, 

forborne. 

sheared, 

Forget, 

forgot, 

forgotten, 
forgot. 

Shear, 
Show, 

shore,* 
showed, 

shorn,  r. 
shown,  r. 

Forsake, 

forsook, 

forsaken. 

Shrink, 

shrunk, 

shrunk, 

Freeze, 

froze, 

frozen. 

shrank, 

shrunken.* 

Freight, 
Get, 

freighted, 
got, 

freighted, 
fraught, 
got,  gotten. 

Slay, 
Slide, 

slew, 
slid,  r., 

slain, 
slid  den, 
slid,  r. 

Give, 

Go, 

gave, 
went, 

given, 
gone. 

Smite, 

smote, 

smitten, 
smit. 

Grave, 
Grow, 

graved, 
grew, 

graven,  r. 
grown. 

Sing, 

sung, 
sang, 

sung. 

(a.)  My  tongue  clave  to  the  roof  of  my  ir 
cross.— Macav  lay.      (c.)   Beholden  ;    with  ho 

onth.— Dickens. 

(&.)  This  line  he  dared  not 

ldeu.*      (d.)  Come  as  the  w 

nils  conio  when 

forests  are  rended.—  W.  Scott. 


VEH 

,BS. 

31 

Present. 

Preterit,  or  Past 

Perfect  Part. 

Present.    Preterit,  or  Past. 

Perfect  Part. 

sunk, 

Strow, 

strowed, 

Strown,  R. 

Sink, 

sank. 

sunk. 

swore, 

Sow  (scatter),  so  we  1, 

sown,  r. 

Swear, 

sware, 

sworn. 

spoke, 

Swell, 

swelled, 

swollen. 

Speak, 

spake,* 

spoken. 

Swim, 

swum, 

swum. 

Spin, 

spun, 
span,* 

spun. 

7 

Take, 

swam, 
took, 

taken. 

Spit, 

spit, 

spit, 

Tear, 

tore, 

torn. 

spat,* 

spitten.* 

Thrive, 

thrived, 

thrived, 

(Spit,  pierce  with  a  spit ;  regular.) 

throve, 

thriven. 

Spring, 

sprung, 

Throw, 

threw, 

thrown. 

sprang, 

sprung. 

Tread, 

trod, 

trodden, 

Steal, 

stole, 

stolen. 

trode,* 

trod. 

strode, 

stridden, 

waxed, 

Stride, 

strid, 

strid. 

Wax  (grow),  waxed, 

waxen.* 

struck, 

Wear, 

wore, 

worn. 

Strike, 

struck, 

stricken. 

Weave, 

wove,  r., 

*  woven,  r.* 

Strive, 

strove,  r 

,*  striven,  R.* 

Write, , 

wrote, 

written. 

2 

.    The  Two  Past  or  tl 

ie  Three 

Forms  Alike. 

Present. 

Preterit,  or  Past 

Perfect  Part. 

Present.    Preterit,  or  Pas 

.    Perfect  Part 

Abide, 

abode, 

abode. 

Cast, 

cast, 

cast. 

Behold, 

beheld, 

beheld. 

Catch, 

caught,  r.,*  caught,  r.* 

Belay, 

belaid,  r., 

belaid,  r. 

Cling, 

clung, 

clung. 

Bend, 

bent,  r., 

bent,  r. 

Clothe, 

clothed, 

clothed, 

Bereave, 

bereft,  r., 

bereft,  r. 

clad, 

clad. 

Beseech, 

besought, 

besought. 

Cost, 

cost, 

cost. 

Bet, 

bet,  r., 

bet,  r. 

Creep, 

crept, 

crept. 

Betide, 

betided, 

betided. 

Cut, 

cut, 

cut. 

betid,* 

betid.* 

Deal, 

dealt,  r.,* 

dealt,  r.* 

Bind, 

bound, 

bound. 

Dig, 

dug,  R., 

dug,  R. 

Bleed, 

bled, 

bled. 

Dwell, 

dwelt,  r., 

dwelt,  r. 

blended, 

blended, 

dreamed, 

dreamed, 

Blend, 

blent,* 

blent,* 

Dream, 

dreamt, 

dreamt. 

Bless, 

blessed, 
blest, 

blessed, 
blest. 

Dress, 

dressed, 
drest,* 

dressed, 
drest.* 

Breed, 

bred, 

bred, 

Feed, 

fed, 

fed. 

Bring, 

brought, 

brought. 

Feel, 

felt, 

felt. 

Build, 

built,  r., 

built,  r. 

Fight, 

fought, 

fought. 

burned, 

burned, 

Find, 

found, 

found. 

Burn, 

burnt, 

burnt. 

Flee, 

fled, 

fled. 

Burst, 

burst, 

burst. 

Fling, 

flung, 

flung. 

Buy, 

bought, 

bought. 

Gild, 

gilded,  gilt,  gilded,  gilt 

32 


VERBS. 


Present. 

Preterit,  or  Past.    Perfect  Part. 

Present. 

Preterit,  or  Past.    Perfect  Part 

Gird, 

girt,  B., 

girt,  b. 

Reave,* 

reft, 

reft. 

Grind, 

ground, 

ground. 

Rid. 

rid, 

rid. 

Hang, 
Have 

hung,  r., 
had, 

hung,  b.* 
had. 

Roast, 

roasted, 

roasted, 
roast.  t> 

(principal  verb), 

Say, 

said, 

said. 

Hear, 

heard, 

heard. 

Seek, 

sought, 

sought. 

Hit, 

hit, 

hit. 

Sell, 

sold, 

sold. 

Hurt, 

hurt, 

hurt. 

Send, 

sent, 

sent. 

Keep, 

kept, 

kept. 

Set, 

set, 

set. 

Kneel, 

knelt,  R. 

knelt,  b. 

Shed, 

shed, 

shed. 

Knit, 

knit,  r., 

knit,  b. 

Shine, 

shone,  b.,*  shone,  b* 

Lay, 

laid, 

laid. 

Shoe, 

shod, 

shod. 

Lead, 

led, 

led. 

Shoot, 

shot, 

shot 

Lean, 

leaned, 

leaned, 

Shred, 

shred, 

shred. 

leant, 

leant. 

Shut, 

shut, 

shut. 

Leap, 

leaped, 

leaped, 

Sit, 

Sleep, 

sat, 

sat. 

leapt,* 

leapt.* 

slept, 

clept. 

Learn, 

learned, 
learnt. 

learned, 
learnt. 

Sling, 
Slink, 

slung, 
slunk, 

slung, 
slunk. 

Leave, 

left, 

left. 

Slit, 

slit,  B., 

slit,  E. 

Lend, 

lent, 

lent. 

Smell, 

smelt,  b., 

smelt,  b. 

Let, 

let, 

let. 

Speed, 

sped,  b.,* 

sped,  e.* 

Light, 

lighted, 
lit, 

lighted, 
lit. 

Spell, 

spelled, 

spelt, 

spelled, 
spelt. 

Lose, 

lost, 

lost. 

Spend, 

spent, 

spent. 

Make, 

made, 

made. 

Spill, 

spilt,  E., 

spilt,  B. 

Mean, 

meant, 

meant. 

Split, 

split,  B.,* 

split,  R.* 

Meet, 

met, 

met 

Spoil, 

spoiled, 

spoiled, 

Pass 

passed, 

passed, 

spoilt,* 

spoilt.* 

past,* 

past.b 

Spread, 

spread, 

spread, 

Pay, 

paid, 

paid. 

Stay, 

staid,  b., 

staid,  B.a 

Pen 

penned, 

penned, . 

String, 

strung, 

strung,  B  * 

(fence  in),  pent, 

pent. 

Stave, 

stove,  b., 

stove,  b. 

(Pen,  write;  regulan) 

Stand, 

stood, 

stood. 

Plead, 

pleaded, 

pleaded, 

Stick, 

stuck, 

stuck. 

plead,  pled,  plead,  pled. 

Sting, 

stung, 

stung. 

Put, 

put, 

put. 

stunk, 

Quit, 

quit,  b., 

quit,  b. 

Stink, 

stank,* 

stunk. 

"Rin 

rapped, 

rapped, 

Sweat, 

sweat,  b., 

sweat,  b. 

.Rap, 

rapt, 

rapt.' 

swet, 

swet. 

Head, 

read, 

read. 

Sweep, 

swept, 

swept. 

(r/.)  T7an£.  hanjred,  hansred  ;  to  suspend  by  the  neck  icith  intent  to  kill .  but  the  distinction 
is  not  always  observed,  (fe.)  Past  is  used  as  an  adjective  or  as  a  noun,  (o.)  Rap,  rapt,  rapt; 
to  seize  with  rapture.    (</.)  Stay,  stayed,  stayed  ;  to  cause  to  stop.    (<?.)  Stringed  instruments. 


VERBS. 


33 


Present. 

Swing, 

Teach, 

Tell, 

Think, 

Thrust, 

Wake, 

Wed, 

Weep, 
Wet, 
Win, 
Wind, 

Work, 

Wring-, 


Preterit,  or  Patt. 
swung, 
taught, 
told, 
thought, 
thrust, 
woke,  r., 
wedded, 
wed,* 
wept, 
wet,  r., 
won, 
wound, 
worked, 
wrought, 
wrung, 


Perfect  Part. 
swung, 
taught, 
told, 
thought, 
thrust, 
woke,  r. 
wedded, 
wed.* 
wept, 
wet,  r, 
won. 
wound, 
worked, 
wrought. 


Perfect  rurt. 


Present.    Preterit,  or  Past. 

Beware,       

Can,  could, 

Do  (auxil'y)did,  

Have,  "        had,  

May,  might,  

Must,  must,  

Ought,  ought,  

quoth,  

Shall,  should,         

Will,     «      would,         

(Will,  wish,  bequeath;  regular.) 

Wit, 

Wot, 

Wis,* 

Weet, 


*  I  wot,*  \ 
f  |  wist,*  I 
,*J      wote,*  ) 


"What  are  the  last  few  verbs  usually  called  ? 


Defective,  because  some  of  the  parts  are  wanting  ; 
and  verbs  having  more  parts  than  are  absolutely  nec- 
essary, are  termed  redundant,  as  bereave,  slide,  swim. 

How  are  formed  the  principal  parts  of  verbs  derived  from  other  verbs  by 
means  of  prefixes  ? 

Generally  in  the  same  way  as  those  of  their  prim- 
itives. 

Ex. — Take,  took,  taken;  m\?>,take%  mistook,  mistaken;  undergo,  undenvent, 
undergone.     But  behave,  engrave,  and  welcome,  are  regular. 


Exercises. 

Give  the  principal  parts ;  and  tell  whether  the  verb  is  regular  or  irregular,  and 
why : — 

Form,  attack,  strip,  deny,  bow,  sow,  grow,  sew,  sin,  win,  spin,  rise, 
despise,  moralize,  skim,  swim,  heal,  steal,  fling,  bring,  spread,  dread, 
fold,  hold,  uphold,  close,  lose,  choose,  blind,  find,  fine,  spurn,  burn, 
reel,  feel,  blend,  send,  tend,  lend,  loan,  tent,  need,  feed,  blight,  fight, 
wink,  drink,  slink,  squeak,  speak,  steep,  sleep,  cleave,  weave,  leave, 
reach,  teach,  fret,  get,  let,  whet,  smut,  put,  agree,  free,  see,  flee,  fly, 
cry,  spite,  bite,  write,  take,  make,  bake,  bare,  dare,  stray,  pay,  slay, 
may,  trick,  click,  stick,  call,  fall,  fell,  bind,  bound,  grind,  ground, 
heat,  eat,  roam,  come,  welcome,  hive,  strive,  live,  give,  forgive,  undo, 
undergo,  counteract,  say,  gainsay,  will,  till,  shall,  cull,  have,  shave, 
land,  stand,  am,  be,  rise,  raise,  tell,  toll,  quell,  die,  lie,  lay,  fit,  hit,  sir, 
seat,  set. 


34  VERBS. 

What  is  a  transitive  verb  ? 

A  transitive  verb  is  a  verb  that  has  an  object. 

Ex. — John  struck  James.  (Struck  whom  ?)  Cats  eat  rats  and  mice.  (Eat 
what  ?)      I  know  him.       The  house  has  a  portico.       To  run  a  race. 

A  transitive  verb  always  implies  both  a  doer  and  an  object,  and  either  can  be 
made  its  subject.  If  the  object  is  made  the  subject,  the  verb  must  be  expressed 
in  what  is  called  the  passive  voice,  and  is  then  often  called  a  passive  verb.  (See 
next  page.) 

Describe  an  intransitive  verb  ? 

An  intransitive  verb  does  not  have  an  object. 

Ex. — John  walks.  The  child  cries.  The  rose  blooms.  "Webster  was 
eloquent.      Webster  was  an  orator.      Alice  reads  and  writes  well. 

A  few  of  the  intransitive  verbs,  as,  be,  lie,  remain,  etc.,  imply  no  action  or 
exertion,  and  are  frequently  called  neuter  verbs,  as  being  neither  active  nor 
passive.  Be  is  the  chief  neuter  verb,  and  extends  alone  farther  than  all  the 
active  verbs  together ;  for  existence  is  a  more  general  idea  than  action. 

What  properties  have  verbs  ? 

Voices,  moods,  lenses,  persons,  and  num- 
bers. 

Exercises. 

The  verbs,  and  why ;  whether  transitive  or  intransitive,  and  why ;  and  if 
intransitive,  whether  neuter,  and  why  f 

Men  build  houses.  Dogs  bark.  The  horse  kicked  the  man. 
The  horse  kicks.  He  talks  well.  He  talks  nonsense.  I  knew 
him,  but  he  did  not  know  me.  *The  crew  captured  and  sold  a 
whale.  We  are  gathering  plums  and  cherries.  She  grieves  and 
weeps.  The  picture  hung  on  the  wall.  Then  arose  Lord  Chat- 
ham. Such  as  I  am  I  have  always  been,  and  always  shall  be. 
Spare  superfluities,  to  supply  necessaries.  You  might  have  assisted 
us.  He  seated  himself.  He  sat  in  a  corner.  He  set  a  trap  for 
a  rat.  Lay  the  book  where  it  lay  before..  Having  written  his  let- 
ter, he  sealed  it.  Give  him  a  knife.  The  fields  look  fresh  and 
fjreen.  Soft  eyes  looked  love  to  eyes  which  spake  again.  Boys 
ike  to  play.  (Like  what  ?)  Children  do  not  consider  how  much 
has  been  doue  for  them  by  their  parents.  (Consider  what  ?)  Who 
knows  who  he  is  ? 

~$ty*ord,8  Explained, — Transitive,  from  the  Latin  trans,  over,  and  it>t8y 
gone  ;  going  or  passing  over  :  a  transitive  verb  generally  denotes  an  act  that  passes 
over  from  the  subject  to  the  object.  Irdran1 'sitive,  from  in,  not,  and  transitive; 
not  transitive.  Passive,  suffering  or  receiving.  Voice— the  voice  expresses  tone, 
and  thereby  our  state,  whether  as  acting  or  as  suffering.      Id'iom,  a  mode  of  ex- 

Sression  peculiar  to  a  language.       Classic  languages;  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  sim- 
ar  languages. 


VERBS.  35 

a.  A  transitive  verb  can  generally  be  expressed  in  two  different  ways ;  as, 
••John  struck  James,"     "  James  was  struck  by  John :"  and  hence  transitive  verba ' 
are  said  to  have  two  voices.     What,  then,  is  voice  f 

Voice  is  a  property  of  transitive  verbs  that  shows 
whether  the  subject  does  or  receives  the  act. 

There  are  two  voices ;  the  active  and  the  passive. 

What  does  the  active  voice  denote  ? 

The  active  voice  represents  the  subject  as  acting, 
or  the  verb  as  relating  to  an  object. 

,     Ex. — David  slew  Goliath.       John  resembles  his  father. 
What  does  the  passive  voice  denote  ? 

The  passive  voice  represents  the  subject  as  acted 
upon,  or  the  verb  as  having  the  object  for  its  subject. 

Ex. — Goliath  was  slain  by  David.       This  farm  was  owned  by  them. 

When  a  transitive  verb  is  made  passive,  the  object  no  longer  remains  the 
object,  but  becomes  the  subject.  Voice,  unlike  the  other  properties  of  verbs, 
does  not  extend  through  all  verbs,  but  belongs  to  transitive  verbs  only.  A  few 
intransitive  vert>3,  however,  are  sometimes  passive  in  form,  but  they  are  not 
passive  in  sense;  as,  "He  is  gone. — Scott.  "The  melancholy  days  are  come." — 
Bryant.  This  is  an  imitation  of  a  French  idiom,  in  which  be  is  used  for  have. 
On  the  other  hand,  verbs  are  sometimes  active  in  form  but  passive  in  sense ;  as, 
"  This  timber  saws  well" — capacity  to  receive  the  act  in  a  certain  way.  "  Your 
poem  reads  smoothly."  "  We  could  easily  see  what  was  doing  on  the  other  side 
of  the  river."  So,  "Virgil  describes  some  spirits  as  purging  in  fire,  to  recover  the 
primitive  beauty  of  their  nature." — Addison.  "You  may  be  sure  ho  has  an  ax 
to  grind." — Franklin.     This  is  an  imitation  of  an  idiom  in  the  Classic  languages. 

In  the  following,  the  object  of  the  preposition  is  made  the  subject :  "  Col. 
Butler  was  accordingly  written  to,  and  ordered  to  hasten  forward  with  the  volun- 
teers."— Irving.     (Compound  passive  verb.) 


Exercises. 

The  verbs,  and  why  ;  whether  in  the  active  voice  or  in  the  passive,  and  why :— • 
The  water  turns  the  wheel.  The  wheel  is  turned  by  the  water. 
The  horse  carries  his  rider.  The  horse  was  hitched  to  the  buggy. 
Mary  is  reading  her  book.  The  book  is  read.  Most  people  are 
influenced  by  their  neighbors.  You  could  have  learned  the  lesson. 
The  lesson  might  have  been  learned  by  you.  Having  taught,  hav- 
ing been  taught,  to  have  taught,  to  have  been  taught,  to  have 
been  teaching.  Since  these  men  could  not  be  persuaded,  it  was 
determined  to  persecute  them.  The  workmen  are  building  the 
house.  The  house  is  building.  Green  maple  saws  well.  Ho 
was  never  heard  of  afterwards. 


S6 


VERBS. 


h.  If  I  say,  "I  write,"  I  express  a  matter  of  fact;  "  I  may  or  can  write,"  \ 
express  what  is  not  matter  of  fact,  yet  may  become  such;  "  If  I  were  writing"  1 
express  a  mere  supposition;  "  Write,11  I  request  it  to  be  done;  M  To  write? 
"Writing,"  I  simply  speak  of  the  act.  These  different  modes  of  expressing  the 
verb,  grammarians  call  moods.     What,  then,  does  mood  express  ? 

Mood  expresses  the  manner  of  assertion. 

Most  grammarians  reckon  five  moods ;  the  indica- 
tive, the  subjunctive,  the  potential,  the  imperative,  and 
the  infinitive. 

II ow  does  the  indicative  mood  express  the  act  or  state  ? 

The  indicative  mood  affirms  something  as  an 
actual  occurrence  or  fact. 

Ex. — God  created  this  beautiful  world.       The  guilty  are  not  happy. 
"If  I  am  deceived,"  "If  I  was  deceived,"  are  still  in  the  indicative  mood,  and 
not  in  the  subjunctive ;  for  they  assume  something  as  matter  of  fact. 
How  does  the  subjunctive  mood  express  the  act  or  state  ? 

The  subjunctive  mood  affirms  something  as  a 
future  contingency,  or  as  a  mere  supposition,  wish,  or 
conclusion. 

If  it  rain  to-night,  our  plants  will  live.  Were  I  a  lawyer,  I  should  not  like 
to  plead  a  rogue's  case.  (But  I  am  not.)  0,  had  I  the  wings  of  a  dove. —  Cow- 
per.  But  if  I  asked  [  should  ask]  your  papa,  he  would  only  say  you  had  better 
[to]  stay  [it  would  be  better  for  you  to  stay]  at  home. — Bulwer.  If  conscience 
had  had  as  strong  a  hold  on  his  mind  as  honor,  he  had  still  been  [would  still  have 
been]  innocent. — British  Essayists.  Some  of  these  forms  are  good  old  rather 
than  good  modern  English. 

Exercises. 

Change  the  following  sentences  so  as  to  make  the  active  verbs  passive,  and  the 
passive  verbs  active : — 

The  sun  adorns  the  world.  Indolence  produces  misery.  My 
neighbor  has  planted  some  apple-trees.  The  dog  bit  the  stranger. 
The  distance  was  measured  by  a  surveyor.  Morse  invented  the  tele- 
graph. The  boat  was  built  by  Ericsson.  Can  the  river  be  forded, 
at  this  place,  by  a  man  on  horseback  ?  He  paid  for  the  carriage. 
iThe  ministers  speak  of  peace.       He  was  expected  to  strike. 

JW*ords  Explained,,— Mood,  manner,  state  of  mind  ;  mood  affirms  the 
act  or  state  as  real,  ideal,  contingent,  or  willed,  or  else  merely  assumes  it  in  an  ab- 
stract or  modifying  sense.  Indicative,  pointing  out,  declaring  ;  subjunctive,  joined 
to;  poten'tial,  having  power;  imper'ative,^  commanding ;  infinitive,  left  free. 
/Subjunctive,  joined  to ;  Decause  the  clause  in  which  this  mooa  occurs,  is  always 
joined  to  another,  or  depends  upon  it  for  complete  sense.  Supposition,  what  is 
merely  in  the  mind.  Uontin'gency,  that  which  depends  on  something  else,  that 
which  may  or  may  not  take  place.  Conclusion  /  a  thought  drawn  from  others,  that 
generally  ends  the  matter. 


VERBS.  37 

What  words  often  precede  this  mood,  or  indicate  it  ? 

If,  though,  that,  lest,  except,  unless,  provided,  etc. 

What  does  a  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mood  suggest,  when  it  refers  to  present 
or  past  time  ? 

That  the  contrary  of  what  is  supposed,  or  some- 
thing different,  is  the  true  state  of  the  case.  See 
p.  36. 

What  other  mood  does  the  subjunctive  resemble  in  its  form,  and  what  one  in 
its  meaning  ? 

In  its  form,  the  indicative ;  but  in  meaning,  the 
potential,  with  which  it  is  also  most  frequently  asso- 
ciated in  sentences.     See  p.  36. 

What  does  the  potential  mood  affirm  of  the  subject  ? 

The  potential  mood  affirms  merely  the  power, 
liberty,  liability,  necessity,  will,  duty,  or  a  similar 
relation  of  the  subject,  in  regard  to  the  act  or  state. 

Ex. — God  can  destroy  this  world.  You  may  play.  They  who  would  be 
fcappy,  must  be  virtuous.       Children  should  obey  their  teachers. 

How  can  this  mood  be  known,  or  what  words  are  used  to  express  it  ? 

May,  can,  must,  might,  could,  would,  and  should. 

What  does  the  imperative  mood  express  ? 

The  imperative  mood  expresses  command,  ex- 
hortation, entreaty,  or  permission. 

Ex. — John,  study  your  lessson.     (Command.)       Go  where  glory  waits  thea 
(Exhortation.)       Oh !  then  remember  n!e.     (Entreaty.)      Return  to  your  friends. 
What  is  the  subject  of  every  verb  in  the  imperative  mood  ? 

Thou,  you,  or  ye,  usually  understood. 

Ex. — "Know  thy  self  "=Know  thou  thyself.       "  My  young  friends,  be  pure 

Exercises. 

The  verb,  and  why ;  then  the  mood,  and  why : — 

William  is  writing.  The  rosemary  nods  on  the  grave,  and  the 
lily  lolls  on  the  wave.  He  caught  a  fish.  It  will  rain  this  even- 
ing. I  may  command,  but  you  must  obey.  He  could  and  should 
have  assisted  us,  but  he  would  not.       I  wish  to  go,  but  I  can  not. 

IFVwcfs  Eplained, — Potential,  implying  the  power  only;  expressing 
what  causes  the  act,  but  not  that  the  act  is  produced.  Liability,  what  may  be. 
Necessity,  what  must  be.  Duty,  what  ought  to  be.  Exhortation,  advice  and" per- 
suasion to  do  good.  Entreaty,  beseeching ;  humble  yet  urgent  request.  We 
command  inferiors,  exhort  equals,  entreat  superiors,  and  permit  in  compliance  with 
the  will  of  others.  Expressed,  put  down  in  the  book  :  understood,  not  put  down, 
but  to  be  supplied  by  the  mind. 


38  VERBS. 

and  cautious"=My  young  friends,  be  ye  pure  and  cautious.       A  verb  in  tbia 
mood  sometimes  has  a  subject  of  the  1st  or  3d  person ;  as,  "  Seek  we  now  some 
deeper  shade."       "  Lead  he  the  way  who  knows  the  spot." 
How  does  the  infinitive  mood  express  the  act  or  state  ? 

The  infinitive  mood  does  not  affirm  the  act  or 
state.     It  comprises  the  infinitive  and  the  participle.* 

Ex. — Be  careful  to  avoid  the  danger.       The  clouds  dispersing.     See  p.  28. 
Which  of  the  moods  can  be  used  interrogatively  ? 

The  indicative  and  the  potential. 

Ex. — Who  is  my  friend?      Must  I  endure  all  this ? 
How  are  they  made  interrogative  ? 

By  placing  the  subject  after  the  verb,  or  after  some 
part  of  it. 

Ex. — "  Thou  art  ho ; "     "  Art  thou  he  ?"     "  Can  you  help  us  ?" 


c.  Timo  may  naturally  bo  divided  into  present,  past,  and  future;  and  wo 
may  consider  an  act  or  state  as  simply  taking  place  in  each  of  these  periods,  or 
as  completed:  thus,  "I  write,  I  have  written ;"  "  I  wrote,  I  had  written;"  "I 
shall  write"  "  1  shall  have  writierin=I'resent,  present-perfect;  past,  past-perfect; 
future,  future-perfect.  Hence  verbs  have  what  grammarians  call  tenses.  How, 
then,  would  you  define  tense  ? 

Tense  is  the  form  and  meaning  of  the  verb  to  dis- 
tinguish time. 


Exercises. 

Do  not  value  a  gem  by  what  ii  is  set  in.  If  William  study,  he 
will  soon  know  his  lesson.  If  wishes  were  horses,  beggars  would 
ride.  Train  up  a  child  in  the  way  he  should  go ;  and  when  he  is 
old,  he  will  not  depart  from  it.  The  violet  soon  will  cease  to 
smile,  the  whippoorwill  to  chant.  May  you  be  happy.  O,  that 
he  were  wiser  !  If  you  are  disappointed,  blame  not  me.  If  you 
be  disappointed,  blame  not  me.  This  government  will  fall,  if  it 
lose  the  confidence  of  the  people.  This  government  would  fall, 
if  it  lost  the  confidence  of  the  people.  This  government  would  have 
fallen,  had  it  lost  the  confidence  of  the  people.  Let  us  now  turn  to 
another  part.  Turn  we  now  to  another  part.  Somebody  call  my 
wife.     (Imperative.) 

*  The  infinitive  mood  is  tolerated,  only  as  we  tolerate  a  neuter  gender.  It  implies  the 
absence  of  all  assertion  rather  than  any  particular  mode  of  assertion.  Prof.  Gibbs,  of  Yale, 
says,  "The  infinitive  mode  so  called  is  the  crude  form  of  the  verb.  It  is  the  verb  divested 
of  all  modality.  It  is  no  mode  at  all."  In  this  book,  we  practically  ignore  this  mood;  or, 
when  we  call  a  verb  a  participle  or  an  infinitive,  the  mood  is  implied.  And  we  include 
under  the  infinitive  mood,  participle*  with  infinitives,  just  as  zoologists  include  uuder  th» 
eat  genus  not  merely  cats,  but  also  lions,  tigers,  leopards,  etc 


VERBS.  39 

There  are  six  tenses  ;  the  present,  the  past,  the 
future,  the  perfect,  the  pluperfect,  and  the  future-per- 
fect In  stead  of  perfect  and  pluperfect  the  words 
present-perfect  and  past-perfect  may  also  be  used. 

What  does  the  present  tense  express  ? 

The  present  tense  expresses  present  acts  or  states. 

Ex. — I  am  writing.      It  snows.       You  may  commence.      Let  me  see  it. 

This  tense  is  also  used  to  express  what  is  always  so 
from  the  very  nature  or  condition  of  things. 

Ex. — Heat  melts  ice.      Traveling  is  expensive.       People  must  die. 
Sometimes  the  present  tense  is  used  to  express  past  or    future  events  more  vividly  :  as, 
"  The  combat  deepens.    On,  ye  brave  !"     "  The  guard  never  surrenders:  it  dies  .'"    Also  in 
speaking  of  the  dead,  when  judged  by  their  existing  works  ;  as,  M  Seneca  moralizes  well." 
How  does  the  past  tense  express  the  act  or  state  ? 

The  past  tense  refers  the  act  or  state  simply  to 
past  time. 

Ex. — Bonaparte  ivas  banished  to  St.  Helena.  She  died  this  morning.  J 
soon  saw  that  he  could  not  see.      The  ship  arrived  before  day. 

This  tense  is  usually  called  the  imperfect  tense,  but  inappropriately.  It  may 
be  well  to  call  it  the  aorist  or  indefinite  tense,  in  the  subjunctive  and  the  potential 
mood,  whenever  it  does  not  denote  past  time. 

How  does  the  future  tense  express  the  act  or  state  ? 

The  future  tense  refers  the  act  or  state  simply  to 
future  time. 

Ex. — The  ears  will  come  this  evening.       Merit  will  be  rewarded. 
How  does  the  perfect  tense  express  the  act  or  state  ? 

The  perfect  tense  represents  something  as  past, 
but  still  connected  with  present  time. 

Ex. — This  magnificent  city  has  been  built  within  one  hundred  years.  I  have 
just  sold  my  horse.  The  mail  may  have  arrived.  This  house  appears  to  have 
been  a  church.  I  have  often  read  Virgil.  (Subject  still  remaining.)  Thus  has 
it  flowed  for  ages.  (Act  still  remaining.)  Cicero  has  written  orations.  (Object, 
or  result,  still  remaining.) 

How  does  the  pluperfect  tense  express  the  act  or  state  ? 

The  pluperfect  tense  represents  something  as 
finished  or  ended  by  a  certain  past  time. 

Ex. — I  had  already  sent  my  trunk  to  the  river,  when  I  received  your  letter. 
A.  fish  had  been  on  the  hook.       A  fish  might  have  been  on  the  hook. 

Wortls  Explained,— Tense,  from  the  French  temps,  Latin  tempus,  time. 
Pe'riod,  a  going  round,  as  a  year ;  a  portion  of  time.  A'-o-rist,  from  the  Greek  a, 
not,  and  oristos,  marked  out ;  indefinite.  Plu'perfect,  from  the  Latin  plus}  more, 
andfectus,  finished ;  that  is,  farther  back  in  time  than  what  is  only  now  finished. 


40  VERBS. 

How  does  the  future-perfect  tense  express  the  act  or  state  ? 

The  future-perfect  tense  represents  something 
as  finished  or  ended  by  a  certain  future  time. 

Ex. — The  flowers  will  have  withered,  when  winter  returns. 

The  three  perfect  tenses  are  sometimes  called  the  relative  tenses,  because  they 
relate  from  one  point  of  time  to  another ;  and  the  other  three  tenses,  which  havo 
not  this  relation,  are  called  the  absolute  tenses. 

Every  perfect  tense,  except  sometimes  a  participle,  must  have  what  two  parts  ? 

Have,  or  some  one  of  its  variations,  and  the  perfect 
participle  of  some  verb. 

Ex. — Have  written ;  having  written ;  to  have  written  ;  may  have  written ; 
has  been  writing ;  shall  have  written ;  should  have  been  writing ;  had  written. 

How  doea  the  present,  the  past,  or  the  future  tense,  sometimes  express  the  act 
or  state  ? 

As  something  habitual  or  customary  in  present, 
past,  or  futuref  time. 

Ex. — He  chews  tobacco.  People  go  to  church  on  Sunday.  There  would 
he  spend  his  earnings.     The  wolf  also  shall  dwell  with  the  lamb. 

When  the  act  or  state  is  expressed  as  ideal  rather  than  real,  as  in  the  subjunc- 
tive mood,  and  frequently  in  the  potential,  what  may  be  observed  of  the  tenses,  in 
respect  to  the  time  of  the  event  ? 

That  they  move  forward,  one  tense  or  more,  in  time. 

Ex. — "  If  I  am" — now  ;  "  If  I  be" — hereafter.  "  If  I  was" — at  any  past 
time;  "If  I  were" — now.  "I  had  been  there" — before  a  certain  past  time; 
"  Had  I  been  there" — at  a  certain  past  time.  "  I  had  paid  you" — before  a  cer- 
tain past  time ;  "  I  might  have  paid  you" — at  a  certain  past  time.  "  Such  gov- 
ernments could  not  last,  if  they  contained  ever  so  much  wisdom  and  virtue." — 
P.  Henry.     At  any  time.     See  second  definition  of  present  tense. 

The  present  and  the  perfect  indicative  are  sometimes  carried  into  future  time, 
by  the  words  when,  as  soon  as,  whoever,  etc. ;  as,  "  When  he  comes  home,  send  for 
me;"  "When  he  has  done  the  work,  I  will  pay  him." 

In  most  of  the  tenses,  a  verb  may  be  expressed  in  several  different  ways :  as, 
"  He  strikes  ;"  "  He  does  strike ;"  "  He  is  striking ;"  "  He  is  struck ;"  "  He  strik- 
eth."  Grammarians  usually  distinguish  these,,  by  calling  them,  emphatically,  tho 
forms  of  the  verb — better,  the  forms  of  the  tenses. 

What  is  the  common  form  ? 

The  common  form  is  the  verb  expressed  in  the 
most  simple  and  ordinary  manner. 

Ex. — He  went  home.       Time  flies.       No  man  has  ever  been  too  honest. 

JWords  Explained.  —  Future-perfect  literally  means  future- finished. 
JTibit'ual,  what  a  person  does  often.  Cus'tomary,  what  is  done  by  many  people. 
lle'al,  merely  in  the  mind.  Progressive,  from  pro,  forth,  and  gressive,  stepping  ; 
going  forth  or  on. 


VERBS.  4 1 

What  i3  tlie  empliatie  form  ? 

The  emphatic  form  has  do  or  did  as  a  part  of  the 
Vrerb,  to  give  it  greater  force. 

Ex. — I  did  saij  so.       Really,  it  does  move.       Do  come  to  see  me. 
Do  and  did  are  also  generally  used  to  express  propositions  negatively  or 
interrogatively ;  but  they  do  not  make  such  propositions  emphatic. 
"What  is  the  progressive  form  ? 

The  progressive  form  is  be,  or  some  variation  of  it, 
combined  with  the  participle  that  ends  in  ing. 
This  form  denotes  continuance  of  the  act  or  state. 

Ex. — I  wrote ;  I  was  writing.       He  is  drinking  wine.     (Drinks — habit.) 
What  is  the  passive  form  ? 

The  passive  form  is  be,  or  some  variation  of  it, 
combined  with  the  perfect  participle. 
This  form  is  generally  passive  in  sense. 

Ex. — The  oak  was  shattered  by  lightning.       The  melancholy  days  are  come. 
What  is  the  ancient  form,  or  solemn  style  ? 

The  ancient  form  has  the  ending  t,  st,  or  est,  for 
the  second  person  singular ;  and  th  or  eth,  in  stead  of 
s  or  es,  for  the  third  person  singular ;  and  generally 
uses  thou  or  ye  in  stead  of  you. 

This  form  occurs  often  in  Scriptural  or  poetic  style. 

Ex. — Thou  barVdst  the  dart.  Adversity  flatlereth  no  man.  Who  chooseth 
me,  must  hazard  all  he  hath.       Ye  are  the  salt  of  the  earth. 

Doth  is  used  for  the  auxiliary  does,  and  dotth  for  the  verb  does.  Hath  and 
saith  are  contractions  of  haveth  and  sayeth. 


cl.  When  I  say,  "I  am,  thou  art,  he  is ;"  "I  write,  thou  writest,  ho  writes;" 
you  see  that  the  verb  varies  with  the  person  of  its  subject :  and  when*  I  say, 
"  lie  is,  they  are  /"  "  He  writes,  they  write ;"  you  see  that  the  verb  varies  with 
the  number  of  its  subject.  Hence  the  verb  is  said  to  have  person  and  number  ; 
that  is,  it  is  so  expiessed  as  to  indicate  tho  person  and  number  of  its  subject,  and 


Exercises. 

The  verb,  and  why ;  then  the  form,  and  why : — 

Twilight  is  weeping  o'er  the  pensive  rose.  It  fell  instantly. 
It  does  amaze  me.  Ye  know  not  what  ye  say.  Learning  taketh 
away  the  barbarity  of  men's  minds.  The  apples  are  gathered  and 
sold.  Onr  chains  are  forging.  The  improved  rifles  are  being 
introduced  into  the  army.       Thou  art  the  man. 

The  tenses  being  more  difficult,  the  exercises  on  them  aro  deferred  till  the  Conjugation 
bas  been  learned. 


42  VERBS. 

thereby  tho  subject  itself.     "What,  then,  is  meant  by  the  person  and  number  of  a 
verb  ? 

The  person  and  iiaisiibei-  of  a  verb  are  its  form 
as  being  suitable  to  the  person  and  number  of  its 
subject. 

The  term,  "a  form  of  the  «er7>,"  signifies,  in  its  widest  sense,  any  mode  of  expressing  it. 
When  is  a  verb  singular?  and  when  plural  t 

It  is  singular,  when  its  form  is  proper  for  predi- 
cating of  a  singular  subject ;  and  plural,  when  proper 
for  predicating  of  a  plural  subject. 

Ex. — The  night  was  serene,  and  all  tho  stars  were  shining. 
Define  singular  subjects  and  plural  subjects. 

A  singular  subject  denotes  one  object,  or  more  ob- 
jects taken  singly  or  separately  ;  a  plural  subject  de- 
notes more  than  one,  but  not  taken  as  one  single  thing. 

Ex. — Si ngular :  "  The  boy  |  is  studious ;"  "  Every  tree  |  is  known  by  its 
fruit;"  "  John,  James,  or  Joseph,  |  13  studying,"  "Neither  John,  James,  nor 
Joseph,  I  is  studying;"  "  The  crowd  |  was  large."  Plural:  "  The  boys  |  aro 
studious;"  "John,  James,  and  Joseph,  j  are  studious;"  "  The  people  |  are  fickle." 

§ingn!ai*  subject:  Singular  nominative ;  singular  nominatives,  joined 
by  or  or  nor ;  singular  nominative  or  nominatives,  modified  by  each,  every,  either, 
neither,  many  a,  or  no  ;  singular  nominatives,  joined  by  and,  but  denoting  only 
one  object ;  collective  noun,  presenting  all  the  objects  as  one  thing. 

Plural  subject:  Plural  nominative;  singular  nominatives,  joined  by 
and;  collective  noun,  presenting  the  objects  individually. 

In  correct  discourse,  of  what  person  and  number  is  the  verb  always  said  to  be  ? 

Of  the  same  as  its  subject  or  nominative. 

Ex — "  I  am."  Here  am  is  said  to  be  of  the  first  person  and  singular  num* 
ber,  because  its  subject,  /,  is  of  this  person  and  number. 


Exercises. 

Tlie  verb,  and  ivhy ;  then  of  what  person  and  number,  to  agree  ivith .* — 

I  study.  We  write.  He  stutters.  Grass  grows.  They 
were.  You  might  improve.  Thou  art  he.  It  is.  It  is  I.  It 
is  they.  Is  it  he?  Thou  hast  been.  The  wind  has  risen. 
Cows  are  lowing.  The  cricket  chirps.  Sing,  heavenly  Muse. 
Seek  we  the  shade.  I  myself  saw  him.  The  general  himself  was 
slain.  The  public  are  respectfully  invited.  The  country  was 
harassed  by  civil  war.  Many  a  man  has  been  ruined  by  specula- 
tion. Either  your  horse  or  mine  is  gone.  Both  your  horse  and 
mine  are  gone.  Neither  the  woman  nor  her  child  was  hurt 
Thou  or  I  am  to  blame.       He,  as  well  as  I,  is  to  blame. 


VERBS.  43 

How  is  the  verb  varied,  to  express  person  and  number  ? 

The  third  person  singular  of  the  present  indicative 
is  generally  expressed,  like  the  plural  of  nouns,  by 
adding  s  or  es.  In  most  other  cases,  the  verb  itself 
remains  unchanged. 

Ex. — He  plans  ;  ho  marches ;  ho  tarries.    I  write  ;  we  write  ;  they  write. 

PARTICIPLES  AND  INFINITIVES. 

"What  is  a  participle  ?    "What  is  an  infinitive  ?    See  p.  28. 

Participles  and  infinitives  perform  three  offices  in  language :  they  are  par- 
ticiples and  infinitives  proper ;  they  combine  with  the  auxiliaries  to  make  most 
parts  of  the  verb  ;  they  become  words  of  other  parts  of  speech. 

How  many  and  what  participles  are  there,  and  how  many  and  what  infinitives  ? 

Two  of  each, — the  present  and  the  perfect;  and 
also  a  third  participle,  the  compound. 

How  does  Vat  present  participle  represent  the  act  or  state  ? 

The  present  participle  represents  the  act  or  state 
as  present  and  continuing  at  the  time  referred  to. 

Ex. — "We  saw  the  moon  rising.      "Who  goes  borrowing,  goes  sorrowing. 
How  does  the  present  infinitive  represent  the  act  or  state  1 

The  present  infinitive  represents  the  act  or  state  as 
present,  but  more  often  as  future,  at  the  time  referred  to. 

Ex. — He  seems  to  study.  Man  never  is,  but  always  to  be,  blest.  •  I  in. 
tendod  to  say  less ;  for  I  was  to  speak  again. 

How  does  the  perfect  participle  or  infinitive  represent  the  act  or  state  ? 

The  perfect  participle  or  infinitive  represents  the 
act  or  state  as  past  or  ended  at  the  time  referred  to. 

Ex. — A  fox,  caught  in  a  trap.       The  river  appears  to  have  risen. 

The  perfect  participle  is  sometimes  present  in  sense;  as,  "  Ho  lives  loved  by 
all."  The  present  infinitive  sometimes  denotes  simply  the  act  or  state ;  and  the 
perfect  infinitive,  tho  completed  act  or  state. 

What  is  a  compound  participle? 

A  compound  participle  consists  of  two  or  more 
participles;  and  it  is  in  sense  generally  a  perfect,  but 
sometimes  a  present,  participle. 

Ex. — Having  purchased  a  farm,  he  retired  to  the  country.  Tho  terms  being 
settled,  he  produced  the  cash.  He,  having  been  previously  engaged,  and  being 
then  engaged,  in  making  const  surveys,  was  appointed. 


44  VERBS. 

How  is  the  participle  sometimes  used  ? 

As  an  adjective,  and  then  called  a  participial  ad- 
jective. 

Define  a  participial  adjective. 

A  participial  adjective  ascribes  the  act  or  state  to 
its  subject  as  a  quality. 

Ex. — "A  leaping  and  murmuring  rivulet."  "Written  laws."  A  participial 
adjective  usually  stands  before  the  noun  which  it  qualifies.  A  word  is  a  participle 
or  participial  adjective,  only  when  it  is  derived  directly  from  a  verb  of  the  same 
moaning.  Writing  and  written  are  formed  from  the  verb  write :  but  unknown, 
situated,  enterprising,  are  merely  adjectives ;  for  there  is  no  such  verb  as  unknow, 
situate,  or  enterprise. 

Participles  and  infinitives  are  frequently  used  as  what  other  parts  of  speech? 

As  nouns,  and  then  often  called  verbal  nouns. 

When  should  a  participle  or  an  infinitive  be  considered  a  noun  ? 

When  it  evidently  takes  the  place,  and  is  used  in 
the  sense,  of  a  noun. 

Ex. — "  To  live  without  being  annoyed,  is  pleasant."  What  is  pleasant?  with- 
out what  ? — Life  without  annoyance  is  pleasant.  "  Successful  studying  requires 
exertion."  "  To  have  learned  so  beautiful  an  art,  will  be  ever  a  pleasure  to  me." 
"  He  made  no  secret  of  my  having  written  the  review." — Irving.  "  His  being  there, 
was  the  ground  of  suspicion."  "  Boys  like  to  play."  (Boys  like  apples.^  "  To 
love  is  to  obey." 

AUXILIARY    VERBS. 

No  complete  verb  in  our  language  can  express  all  its  properties,  or  be  ex- 
pressed in  all  its  forms,  without  the  aid  of  certain  other  little  verbs.  Thus,  to 
express  "strike"  in  future  time,  we  say,  " shall  or  will  strike;"  in  the  potential 
mood,  "may,  can,  must,  might,  could,  would,  or  should  strike;"  in  the  passive 
voice,  "is  struck,  was  struck,  being  struck,"  etc.  These  little  helping  verbs  are 
therefore  called  auxiliary  verbs.     Auxiliary  means  helping. 

How,  then,  would  you  define  an  auxiliary  verb  ? 

An  auxiliary  verb  helps  another  verb  to  express 
its  meaning  in  a  certain  manner  or  time. 

Which  are  the  auxiliary  verbs  ? 

Be,  and  all  its  variations ;  do,  did;  can,  could ;  have, 
had;  may,  might;  must;  shall,  should;  tvill,  would. 

Words  Explained, —  Verbal,  formed  from  a  verb,  like  a  verb.  Pos- 
libWity,  what  can  be.  Probability,  what  is  likely  to  be.  Reasonableness,  the 
state  of  being  proper.  Injunction,  request,  command.  Compulsion,  force.  Ad- 
ap-ta'-tion,  fitness,  suitableness.  Pre1  fix;  some  letter  or  letters  put  to  the  begin- 
ning of  a  word,  to  vary  its  meaning.      Exem'plified,  shown  by  examples. 


VERBS.  45 

For  what  are  the  auxiliaries  te  and  its  variations  used  ? 

They  are  used  to  express  the  verb  progressively  or 
passively. 

Ex. — The  farmer  is  ploughing  his  field.       Tlie  field  is  ploughed. 
For  what  are  the  auxiliaries  do  and  did  used  ? 

They  are  used  to  express  the  verb  with  emphasis, 
and  often  negatively  or  interrogatively. 

Ex. — I  do  believe  it       He  did  say  so.       He  did  not  go.      Did  you  go  f 
What  do  can  and  could  imply  ? 

Power  or  ability. 

Ex. — I  can  lift  the  stone.  I  can  learn  the  lesson.  I  could  not  give  my 
consent. 

What  do  have  and  had  imply,  and  for  what  are  they  used  ? 

They  imply  possession,  and  are  used  to  express  the 
act  or  state  as  finished  or  ended  at  the  time  referred  to. 

Ex. — I  have  gathered  the  plums  which  the  wind  had  blown  down. 
What  meaning  is  conveyed  by  may  and  might  ? 

Permission,  possibility,  or  probability;  sometimes 
reasonableness. 

Ex. — You  may  go  to  play.      But  remember  the  horse  may  die.      It  may  rain 
this  evening.       But  the  question  might  be  asked,  Is  the  tax  legal  ? 
What  do  must,  shall,  and  should  denote  ? 

Duty  or  injunction :  but  shall,  more  frequently 
compulsion ;  and  must,  generally  necessity. 

Ex. — Wo  should  care  for  others.  Thou  shalt  not  swear.  Ho  shall  go- 
You  must  not  look  for  mo  before  next  week.       Pupils  must  obey. 

What  do  wiU  and  would  denote  ? 

Willingness,  adaptation,  or  tendency. 

Ex. — lie  would  pay  if  ho  could.  This  will  do.  Weeds  will  grow  where 
there  is  no  cultivation.       Roses  will  fade. 

Generally  speaking,  §liall  foretells  in  the  first  person,  and  threatens  in  the 
second  and  third  persons ;  will  promises  or  consents  in  the  first  person,  and 
foretells  in  the  second  and  third  persons.  In  dependent  or  interrogative  proposi- 
tions, these  words  often  reverse  or  vary  their  meanings. 

For  what  purpose  are  all  the  auxiliaries  more  or  less  used  ? 

To  express  the  verb  interrogatively.  For  this  pur- 
pose, they  are  placed  before  the  nominative. 

Ex. — "You  are  wounded;"  "4r<?  Y0U  wounded?"     "Does  he  know  you?'' 


» 
4G  YE  UBS. 

CONJUGATION  AND  SYNOPSIS. 

What  is  it,  to  conjugate  a  verb  ? 

To  conjugate  a  v$rb  is  to  show,  in  a  regular  way, 
how  some  or  all  of  its  parts  are  correctly  expressed. 

Ex. — Be  and  write  in  the  present  tense,  indicative  mood. 

Singular.  Plural. 

First  Person.         I  am,  .      1.  Wc  arc, 

Second  Person.     You  are,  2.  You  arc, 

Third  Person.        He,  she,  or  it,  is  ;  3.  They  arc. 

1.  I  write,  1.  Wc  write, 

2.  You  write,  2.  You  write, 

3.  He  or  she  writes ;  3.  They  write. 
What  is  it,  to  give  the  synopsis  of  a  verb  ? 

To  give  the  synopsis  of  a  verb,  is  to  express  it  cor- 
rectly, in  a  single  person  and  number,  or  in  a  partio 
ular  form,  through  some  or  all  of  its  moods  and  tenses. 

Ex. — Synopsis  of  write,  with  I,  through  the  indicative  mood:  Present,  I 
write;  past,  /  wrote;  future,  /  shall  or  will  write:  perfect,  I  have  written;  plu. 
perfect,  i"  had  written ;  future-perfect,  /  shall  or  will  have  written. 

Most  parts  of  the  verb  consist  of  auxiliaries  combined-with  participles  and 
infinitives.  To,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  is  omitted  when  this  is  combined  with 
auxiliaries ;  it  is  also  generally  omitted  after  bid,  make,  need,  hear,  |  let,  see,  feel, 
and  dare,  in  the  active  voice,  because  these  verbs  have  acquired  to  some  extent 
the  meaning  of  auxiliaries.  From  the  present,  all  the  parts  of  a  regular 
verb  can  be  easily  formed ;  when  the  verb  is  irregular,  the  three  principal  parts 
must  be  given. 

Exercises. 

The  verb,  and  why ;  tJien  the  auxiliary,  ivhat  it  implies,  and  what  mood  and 
tense  it  expresses : — 

John  can  read.       Mary  may  write.       Die  I  must.       He  does 

improve  rapidly.       Do  you  know  him  ?       The  sun  has  risen.      Tho 

thief  had  left  the  tavern  when  his  pursuers  came.       I  have  a  knife, 

and  it  is  sharp.        You  shall  obey  me.       Ye  will  not  come  that  ye 

may  have  life.       I  will  come  if  I  can.       He  would  not  remain,  if  ho 

were  sent.       "Whoever  would  desert,  should  be  hanged.     Did  not 

you  go  too  ?       May  God  ever  protect  the  right. 

V&\*rds  Explained. — Conjugation,  from  the  Latin  con,  together,  and 
jugum,  a  yoke  ;  a  yoking-together.  Oomugation  signified,  in  old  times,  the  joining 
of  various  endings*  und  prefixes  to  the  chief  parts  of  verbs  called  tho  roots  ;  but, 
with  us,  the  word  rather  signifies  the  joining  of  the  various  forms  of  the  verb  to 
their  nominatives.  Synop'sis  means  a  look  at  the  xohole  ;  and  as  we  are  apt  to  see 
only  the  ohief  or  most  striking  parts,  by  looking  at  all  at  once,  the  word  nas  eomo 
to  signify  the  chief  parts,  or  the  outline,  of  the  "whole  of  a  thing.  Par'adigm  ;  a 
display  of  the  variations  of  a  word,  or  of  a  class  of  words. 


VERBS.  4) 

Formation    of  the    Tenses. 

Present  participle  :    Present   +  WQ  /   *•  c,  the  present  combined  with  the  ending  ing. 

Perfect  participle:  Present  +  ed;  or,irregi^lar  and  given.      See  pp.  29-33. 

Compound  participle  :  Being,  having,  or  having  been  -f  perfect  participle. 

Present  infinitive  :   To  +  present.    See  p.  29. 

Perfect  infinitive  :   To  have  +  perfect  participle. 

Present  indicative :  Present ;  or  do  +  present  infinitive   (without  to). 

Past  indicative  :  Present  +  ed ;  or,  did  +  present  infinitive  j  or,  irregular 

Future  indicative :  Shall  or  will + present  infinitive,  [and  given.  See  pp.  29-33. 

Perfect  indicative  :  Have  -f  perfect  participle. 

Pluperfect  indicative  :  Had  +  perfect  participle. 

Future-perfect  indicative :  Shall  or  will  -f  perfect  infinitive. 

Present  subjunctive :  Same  as  present  indicative  ;  but  be  in  stead  of  am. 

Past  subjunctive  :   Same  as  past  indicative ;  but  were  in  stead  of  was. 

Pluperfect  subjunctive:  Same  as  pluperfect  indicative. 

Present  potential :  May,  can,  or  must  +  present  infinitive. 

Past  potential :  Might,  could,  would,  or  should  +  present  infinitive. 

Perfect  potential :  May,  can,  or  must  +  perfect  infinitive. 

Pluperfect  potential :  Might,  could,  would,  or  should  +  perfect  infinitive. 

Present  imperative  :  Same  as  present  indicative. 

Progressive  Form  :  Corresponding  tense  of  the  verb  be  +  present  participle. 

Passive  Form  :  Corresponding  tense  of  the  verb  be  +  perfect  participle. 

To  express  the  progressive  passive  sense,  the  ordinary  progressive  form  is 
sometimes  used,  when  the  subject  can  not  be  considered  the  doer,  and  when  the 
common  passive  verb  would  denote  completion ;  as,  "  The  fortress  was  building.1' 
• — Irving.  Being  is  sometimes  put  into  the  common  passive  verb,  for  the  same 
purpose;  as,  "The  men  are  being  enrolled." — Newspaper. 

CONJUGATION  EXEMPLIFIED. 

I  have  here  presented  to  you  tho  very  irregular  verb  be,  the  regular  verb 
row,  and  the  irregular  verb  take,  in  all  tho  forms  in  which  they  can  be  expressed. 
Like  them,  or  by  their  means,  may  all  other  verbs  be  expressed  in  all  their 
forms ;  and  for  I,  you,  he,  she,  it,  we,  you,  and  they,  can  be  used  any  other  nom- 
inatives having  the  same  person  and  number,  that  is,  all  nominatives  whatsoever; 
BO  that  the  following  conjugation  is  sufficient  to  teach  all  the  correct  forms  of  all 
Hie  verbs,  for  all  the  propositions  that  have  been  spoken  or  written,  and  all  that 
can  be  spoken  or  written,  in  the  English  language. 

Be.  Row.  .        Take. 


Principal  Parts. 

Present. 
Be  or  am, 
Row, 
Take, 

Preterit,  or  Past. 
was, 
rowed, 
took, 

Perfect  Participle. 
been, 
rowed, 
taken. 

48 


VERBS. 


INDICATIVE 


ABSOLUTE 

Singular. 

Present 

First  Person. 
I 

Second  Person. 

You 

Third  Person. 
He,  She,  or  It, 

am, 

are, 

is; 

a 

JEJ. 

row, 
do  row, 

row, 
efo  row, 

row  s ; 
does  row ; 

Pr. 
P. 

am  row  ing, 
am  row  ed, 

are  rowing, 
are  rowed, 

is  rowing ; 
is  rowed ; 

a 

E. 

Pr. 

P. 

take, 
do  take, 
am  tak  ing, 
am  tak  en, 

take, 
do  take, 
are  taking, 
are  taken, 

take  s ; 
do  es  take ; 
is  taking ; 
is  taken  ; 

Singular. 

Past 

I 

You 

He 

was, 

were, 

was ; 

a 

row  ed, 
did  row, 

rowed, 
did  row, 

rowed ; 
did  row ; 

Pr. 
P. 

was  row  ing, 
was  row  ed, 

were  rowing, 
were  rowed, 

was  rowing;  % 
was  rowed ; 

C. 
K 
Pr. 
P. 

took, 
did  take, 
teas  tak  ing, 
teas  taken, 

took, 
did  take, 
were  taking, 
were  taken, 

took; 
did  take  ; 
was  taking ; 
was  taken  ; 

Singular. 

Future 

I 

You 

shall  or  will — 

He 

be, 

be, 

be  ; 

C. 

Pr. 

P. 

row, 

be  row  ing, 

be  row  ed, 

row, 

be  rowing, 

be  rowed, 

row; 

be  rowing; 

be  rowed ; 

a 

Pr. 
P. 

take, 

be  tak  £?i</, 

be  takew, 

take, 

be  taking, 

be  taken, 

take ; 

be  taking; 

be  taken ; 

*  Recite  the  following  paradigm  across  both  pages ;  and  the  synopsis  with  thou,  down  tlio 
page.  The  entire  paradigm  can  also  be  recited  down  the  page,  as  well  as  across;  thus,  First 
person  singular,  com.  form,  I  row  ;  emphatic  form,  I  do  row,  etc.  The  parts  in  Italics  show 
What  auxiliary  matter  must  be  put  to  the  root  of  the  verb,  or  what  change  mu&t  bo  made  in 


VERBS. 


4!) 


MOOD.* 


Tense, 


First  Person. 
We 
are, 

row, 
do  row, 
are  rowing, 
are  rowed, 

take, 
do  take, 
are  taking, 
are  taken, 

Tense. 

We 

were, 

rowed, 
did  row, 
icere  rowing, 
were  rowed, 

took, 
did  take, 
were  taking, 
were  taken, 

Tense. 


Plural. 

Second  Person. 

TJiird  Person, 

You 

They 

are, 

are. 

row, 

row.f 

do  row, 

do  row. 

are  rowing, 

are  rowing. 

are  rowed, 

are  rowed. 

take, 

take. 

do  take, 

do  take. 

are  taking, 
are  taken, 

are  taking, 
are  taken. 

Plural. 

(Imperfect.) 

You 

They 

were, 

were. 

rowed, 

rowed. 

did  row, 

did  row. 

were  rowing, 

were  rowing. 

were  rowed, 

were  rowed. 

took, 

took. 

did  take, 

did  take. 

were  taking, 

were  taking. 

were  taken, 

were  taken. 

Plural. 

(First-Future.) 

You 

They 

shall  or  will. 

be, 

be. 

row, 

row. 

be  rowing, 
be  rowed, 

be  rowing, 
be  rowed. 

take, 

take. 

be  taking, 
be  taken, 

be  taking, 
be  taken. 

We 


be, 

row, 

be  rowing, 

be  rowed, 

take, 

be  taking, 

be  taken, 

it,  to  express  the  mood,  tense,  form,  person,  and  number.    C-  stands  for  Common  Form  ;  if, 
for  Emphatic  Form;  Pr.,  for  Progressive  Form ;  and  />.,  for  Passive  Form. 

t  Observe  that  the  verb,  like  the  nouns  and  pronouns  in  their  declension,  remains  some- 
times unchanged,  is  sometimes  partly  chanced,  and  is  sometimes  wholly  changed,  to  express 
its  different  properties;  and  that  it  sometimes  calls  in  the  help  of  the  auxiliary  verbs. 


so 


VEKBS. 


RELATIVE 

Singular. 

Perfect 

First  Person. 

Second  Person. 

T]iird  Person. 

I 

You 

He 

have — 

Aavc — 

has — 

Pr. 

p 

been, 
row  ed, 
been  row  ing, 
been  rower?, 

been, 
rowed, 
been  rowing, 
been  rowed, 

been  ; 
rowed ; 
been  rowing ; 
been  rowed ; 

c. 

Pr. 
P. 

tak  en, 
been  tak  ing, 
been  tak  en. 

taken, 

been  taking, 
been  taken, 

Singular. 

taken ; 
been  taking ; 
been  taken ; 

Pluperfect 

I 

You 

had — 

He 

been, 

been, 

been  ; 

a 

Pr. 
P. 

row  ed, 
been  row  ing, 
been  row  ed, 

rowed, 
been  rowing, 
been  rowed, 

rowed ; 
been  rowing ; 
been  rowed ; 

a 

Pr. 
P. 

tak  era, 
5eerc  tak  ing, 
been  takew, 

taken, 

been  taking, 
been  taken, 

Singular. 

taken  ; 
been  taking ; 
been  taken ; 

Future -Per  feet 

I 

You 

He 

shall  or  will  have- 

been, 

been, 

been ; 

a 

Pr. 
P. 

row  ed, 
been  row  &m<7, 
been  rowed, 

rowed, 
been  rowing, 
been  rowed, 

rowed ; 
been  rowing ; 
been  rowed ; 

C. 

Pr. 

ft 

tak  en, 
#eerc  taking, 
been  tak  e^, 

taken, 

been  taking, 
been  taken, 

taken  ; 
been  taking; 
been  taken ; 

VE11BS. 


51 


Tenses. 

Tense. 

Plural. 

(Present-Perfect.) 

First  Person. 

Second  Person. 

Third  Person. 

We 

You 

They 

have — 

have — 

have — 

been, 

been, 

been. 

rowed, 

rowed, 

rowed. 

been  rowing, 
been  rowed, 

been  rowing, 
been  rowed, 

been  rowing, 
been  rowed. 

taken, 

taken, 

taken. 

been  taking, 
been  taken, 

been  taking, 
been  taken, 

been  taking, 
been  taken. 

Tense. 

Plu  ral 

(Past-Perfect.) 

We 

You 

had — 

They 

been, 

been, 

been. 

rowed, 

rowed, 

rowed. 

been  rowing, 
been  rowed, 

been  rowing, 
been  rowed, 

been  rowing, 
been  rowed. 

taken, 

taken, 

taken. 

been  taking, 
been  taken, 

been  taking, 
been  taken, 

been  taking, 
been  taken. 

Tense. 

Plural. 

(Second-Future.) 

Wfi 

You 

shall  or  will  have—- 

They 

been, 

been, 

been. 

rowed, 

rowed, 

rowed. 

been  rowing, 
been  rowed, 

been  rowing, 
been  rowed, 

been  rowing, 
been  rowed. 

taken, 

taken, 

taken. 

been  taking, 
been  taken, 

been  taking, 
been  taken, 

been  taking, 
been  taken. 

52 


VERBS. 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


a. 

E. 

Pr. 

P. 

a 

E. 

PrJ 

P. 


a 

K 

Pr. 

P. 

a 

M 

Pr. 
P. 


a 

Pr. 
P. 

O. 

Pr. 

P. 


First  Person. 

If  I 

be, 

row, 
do  row, 
be  row  ing, 
be  row  ed, 

take, 
do  take, 
be  taking, 
be  taken. 


If  I 

were, 

row  ed, 
did  row, 
zvere  row  ing, 
icere  rowed, 

took, 
did  take, 
were  tak  ing, 
were  tak  en, 


If  I 

been, 

xowed, 
been  row  ing, 
been  vowed, 

tak  en, 
been  tak  ing, 
been  taken, 


Singular. 

Second  Person. 

If  you 

be, 

row, 
do  row, 
oe  rowing, 
be  rowed, 

take, 
do  take, 
be  taking, 
be  taken. 


Singular. 

If  you 

were, 

rowed, 
did  row, 
were  rowing, 
were  rowed, 

took, 
did  take, 
were  taking, 
were  taken, 

Singular. 
If  you 

had— 
been, 

rowed, 
been  rowing, 
been  rowed, 

taken, 

been  taking, 
been  taken, 


Present 

Third  Person. 

If  he 

be; 

row ; 
do  row ; 
be  rowing; 
be  rowed ; 

take; 
do  take ; 
be  taking ; 
be  taken ; 

Fast 


We  can  also  say,  "Were  I,"  "Were 
"Had  I  been,"  "Had  you  been,"  etc., 


If  he 

were ; 

rowed ; 
did  row; 
were  rowing ; 
were  rowed ; 

took; 
did  take ; 
were  taking ; 
were  taken ; 

Pluperfect 

If  he 

been ; 

rowed  ; 
been  rowing; 
been  rowed ; 

taken ; 
been  taking ; 
been  taken ; 

you,"  "Were  he,"  eta, 
"Be   it  ever  so  fine,  1 


VERBS. 


53 


MOOD. 

Tense. 

Plural. 

Mrst  Person. 

Second  Person. 

Third  Person. 

If  wb 

If  you 

If  they 

be, 

be, 

be. 

row, 

row, 

row. 

do  row, 

do  row, 

do  row. 

be  rowing, 

be  rowing, 

be  rowing. 

be  rowed, 

be  rowed, 

be  rowed. 

take, 

take, 

take. 

do  take, 

do  take, 

do  take. 

be  taking, 

be  taking, 

be  taking. 

be  taken, 

be  taken, 

be  taken. 

Tense. 

Plural. 

(Imperfect.) 

If  we 

If  you 

If  they 

were, 

were, 

were. 

rowed, 

rowed, 

rowed. 

did  row, 

did  row, 

did  row. 

were  rowing, 

were  rowing, 

were  rowing. 

were  rowed, 

were  rowed, 

were  rowed. 

took, 

took, 

took. 

did  take, 

did  take, 

did  take. 

were  taking, 

wrere  taking, 

were  taking. 

were  taken, 

were  taken, 

were  taken. 

Tense. 

Plural. 

(Past-Perfect.) 

If  wb 

If  you 

If  they 

0 

had — 

been, 

been, 

been. 

rowed, 

rowed, 

rowed. 

been  rowing, 

been  rowing, 

been  rowing. 

been  rowed, 

been  rowed, 

been  rowed. 

taken, 

taken, 

taken. 

been  taking, 

been  taking, 

been  taking. 

been  taken, 

been  taken, 

been  taken. 

would  not  buy  it  f 

1  for,  "If  1   were," 

"If  you  were,"  "If  1 

had  been,"  "Though 

it  be  ever  so  fine,  1 

would  not  buy  it." 

54 


VERBS. 


POTENTIAL 

Present 

Singular. 

First  Person. 

Second  Person. 

Third  Person. 

I 

You 
may,  can,  or  must- 

He 

be, 

be, 

be  ; 

a 

row, 

row, 

row ; 

i-v. 

p. 

be  row  big, 
be  rowed, 

be  rowing, 
be  rowed, 

be  rowing; 
be  rowed ; 

o. 

take, 

take, 

take  ; 

Pr. 
P. 

be  taking 9 
be  taketi. 

be  taking, 
be  taken, 

Singular. 

be  taking ; 
be  taken ; 

Past 

be, 


You  He 

might,  could,  would,  or  should — 
be,  be ; 


a 

Pr. 
P. 

row, 

be  row  ing, 

be  rowed, 

row, 

be  rowing, 

be  rowed, 

row ; 

be  rowing ; 

be  rowed ; 

0. 

Pr. 

P. 

take, 

be  taking, 

be  taken, 

take, 

be  taking, 

be  taken, 

take; 

be  taking ; 

be  taken ; 

Singular. 

Perf ec 

t 

I 

You 

He 

may, 
been, 

can,  or  must  have- 
been, 

% 
been  ; 

C. 

Pr. 

P. 

row  ed, 
been  rowing, 
been  rowed, 

rowed, 
been  rowing, 
been  rowed, 

rowed ; 
been  rowing; 
been  rowed ; 

0. 

Pr. 

P. 

tak  en, 
been  taking, 
been  taken, 

taken, 

been  taking, 
been  taken, 

taken  ; 
been  taking; 
been  taken ; 

Does  the  subjunctive  mood  vary,  iu  its  forms,  through  the  different  persons 
and  numbers  ? 


VERBS.  55 


MOOD. 

Tense, 

Plural. 

First  Person. 

Second  Person. 

Third  Person. 

We 

You 

may,  can>  or  must — 

They 

be, 

be, 

be. 

row, 

be  rowing, 

be  rowed, 

row, 

be  rowing, 

be  rowed, 

row. 

be  rowing. 

be  rowed. 

take, 

be  taking, 

be  taken, 

take, 

be  taking, 

be  taken, 

take. 

be  taking. 

be  taken. 

Tense. 

Plural. 

(Imperfect.) 

Wk 

You 

They 

might,  could,  would,  or  should — 

be, 

be, 

be. 

row, 

be  rowing, 

be  rowed, 

row, 

be  rowing, 

be  rowed, 

row. 

be  rowing. 

be  rowed. 

take, 

be  taking, 

be  taken, 

take, 

be  taking, 

be  taken, 

take. 

be  taking. 

be  taken. 

Tense. 

Plural. 

(Present-Perfect.) 

We 

You 

They 

may,  can}  or  must  have — 

been, 

been, 

been. 

rowed, 
been  rowing, 
been  rowed, 

rowed, 
been  rowing, 
been  rowed, 

rowed, 
been  rowing, 
been  rowed. 

taken, 

been  taking, 
been  taken, 

taken, 

been  taking, 
been  taken, 

taken. 

been  taking, 
been  taken. 

Can  you  show  how  some  of  the  forms  of  the  subjunctive  mood  duTer  from  tho 
corresponding  forms  of  the  indicative  mood  ? 


56 


VEK13S. 


Singular. 

First  Person.  Second  Person. 

You  He 

mighty  could,  would,  or  should  have — 


Pluperfect 

Third  Person. 


a 

Pr. 
P. 

C. 
Pr. 
P. 


been, 

row  ed, 

been  row  ing, 

been  row  ed, 

tak  en, 
been  tak  in  g, 
been  takew, 


been, 

rowed, 
been  rowing, 
been  rowed, 

taken, 

been  taking, 
been  taken, 


been  ; 

rowed  ; 
been  rowing; 
been  rowed ; 

taken  ; 
been  taking ; 
been  taken; 


IMPERATIVE      MOOD 
Present     Tense. 


Singular. 

C.   Be,  or  be  thou ; 

E.   Do  be,  or  do  thou  be  ; 

C.   Row,  or  row  thou  ; 

E.   Do  row,  or  do  thou  row; 

Pr.  Be  rowing,  or  be  thou  rowing; 

P.   Be  rowed,  or  be  thou  rowed ; 

C.   Take,  or  take  thou; 

E.    Do  take,  or  do  thou  take ; 

Pr.  Be  taking,  or  be  thou  taking ; 

P.   Be  taken,  or  be  thou  taken  ; 


P  lu  ral. 

be,  or  be  ye. 

do  be,  or  do  ye  be. 

row,  or  row  ye. 

do  row,  or  do  ye  row. 

be  lowing,  or  be  ye  rowing. 

be  rowed,  or  be  ye  rowed. 

take,  or  take  ye. 

do  take,  or  do  ye  take. 

be  taking,  or  be  ye  taking. 

be  taken,  or  be  ye  taken. 


Exercises. 

The  verb,  and  why ;  then  the  tense,  and  why  : — 

The  tree  blossoms,  has  blossomed  ;  blossomed,  had  blossomed ; 
will  blossom,  will  have  blossomed;  may  blossom,  might  blossom. 

The  moonlight  is  glimmering  on  the  water.  Hushed  now  are 
the  whirlwinds  that  ruffled  the  deep.  The  storm  had  ceased  before 
we  reached  a  shelter.  The  storm  ceased  before  we  reached  a  shel- 
ter. He  who  is  a  stranger  to  industry,  may  possess,  but  he  can  net 
enjoy.  Men  must  be  taught  as  if  you  taught  them  not.  How 
bright  yon  pearly  clouds  reposing  lie !       He  sank  exhausted  on  the 

How  many  and  what  tenses  has  the  indicative  mood  ? — the  subjunctive  ? — the 
potential  ? — the  imperative  ?    What  participles  are  there  ? — what  infinitives  ? 

In  what  mood  and  tense  do  you  find  do? — did? — have? — had?— shall  or  will? 
— shall  or  will  have? — may,  can,  or  must? — may,  can,  or  must  have? — might,  could, 
would,  or  should  ? — might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  ? 


VERBS. 

Tense. 

Plural. 

(Past-Perfect.) 

First  Person. 

We 

Second  Person. 

You 

Third  Perso 
*    They 

been, 

mighty 

could \  wouldy  or 
been, 

should  have — 
been. 

rowed, 
been  rowing, 
been  rowed, 

rowed, 
been  rowing, 
been  rowed, 

rowed, 
been  rowing, 
been  rowed. 

1aken, 

been  taking, 
been  taken., 

taken, 

been  taking, 
been  taken, 

taken. 

been  taking, 
been  taken. 

5<J 


INFINITIVE     MOOD. 

Present  Infinitive.  Perfect  Infinitive. 

To  be.  To  have  been. 

To  row.  To  have  rowed. 

To  be  rowing.  To  have  been  rowing. 

To  be  rowed.  To  have  been  rowed. 

To  take.  To  have  taken. 


a 

Pr 

p. 

c. 

Pr 
P. 


To  be  taking 
To  be  taken. 


Present  Participle. 
Being. 
Rowing. 
Taking. 

Perfect  Participle. 
Been. 
Rowed. 
Taken. 


To  have  been  taking. 
To  have  been  taken. 

Compound  Participle. 
Neuter.    Having  been. 
Active.     Having  rowed. 
Passive.  Being  rowed. 
Passive.  Having  been  rowed. 

Active.     Having  taken. 
Passive.  Being  taken. 
Passiv3.  Having  been  taken. 


Exercises. 

bloody  field.  It  would  have  pleased  me  to  have  heard  from  you. 
Strike!  for  the  green  graves  of  your  sires.  I  may  have  made  somo 
mistakes.  I  had  heard  that  the  spirit  of  discontent  was  very  prev- 
alent here  ;  but  with  pleasure  I  find  that  I  have  been  grossly  mis- 
informed. Had  the  whole  Turkish  empire  risen  in  opposition,  it 
could  not,  at  that  moment,  have  deterred  them.  Your  character 
will  have  been  formed  at  the  age  of  twenty.  She  seems  to  study. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  written  the  book.  As  soon  as  I  have 
learned  my  lesson,  I  will  play  with  yon. 


58 


VERBS. 


ANCIENT  FORM,  OR  SOLEMN  STYLE.— THOU. 
INDICATIVE     MOOD. 


Present. 

Past. 

Future.        Perfect. 

Pluperfect.  Future-Perfect 

Thou 

Thou 

Thou         Thou 

Tiiou 

Thou 

shal  t  or  wil  I —  hast — 

hadst —  shalt  or  wilt  have-' 

art; 

was /or  wer  tf 

;  be ;              been ; 

been  ; 

been; 

a 

tow  est, 

vowedst, 

row,           rowed, 

rowed, 

row  ed, 

K 

dost  row, 

didst  row, 

Ft 

.  art 

wast 

be                been 

been 

been 

row  ing, 

row  ing, 

row  ing,        rowing, 

row  ing, 

rowing, 

r. 

art  rowed; 

wast  rowed; 

be  row  ed ;  been  row  ed ; 

been  rowed; 

been  rawed; 

a 

takest, 

tookst, 

take,           taken, 

taken, 

taken, 

K 

dost  take, 

didst  take, 

Pr.  art  taking, 

wast  taking, 

bo  taking,  been  taking, 

been  taking, 

been  taking, 

P. 

art  taken. 

wast  taken. 

be  taken,    been  taken. 

been  taken. 

been  taken. 

SUBJUNCTIVE      MOOD. 

Present. 

Past. 

Pluperfect. 

If  thou 

If  thou 

If  thou 

hadst- 

be; 

wer  t  or  were ; 

been ; 

C.    row, 

row  ed, 

rowed 

i 

K    do  row, 

did  row,  or  didst  row, 

Pr.  be  row  ing, 

wert  rowing, 

been  row  ing, 

P.    be  row  ed ; 

wer  t  row  ed ; 

been  row  ed  • 

C.    take 

took, 

taken, 

K    do  take, 

did  take,  or  didst  take, 

Pr.  be  taking, 

wert  taking, 

been  taking, 

P.    be  taken. 

wert  taken. 

been  taken. 

"We  can  also 

say,  "  Wert  thou,"  "  Wert  thou  rowed,1 

1  "Hadst  thou  been,"  "Bddst 

thou  rowed;"  for,  "If  thou  wert"  "//"thou  hadst  been,"  etc. 


POTENTIAL    MOOD 


Present. 

Past. 

Perfect. 

Pluperfect. 

Thou 

Thou 

Thou 

Thou 

mayst,  canst, 

might  si,  could  st, 

mayst,  canst, 

mightst,  couldst,  woul 

or  must — 

would  st,  or  should  st — 

or  must  have — 

or  shouldst  have — 

be; 

be; 

been; 

been  ; 

C.   row, 

row, 

row  ed, 

row  ed, 

Pr.  be  row  ing, 

be  rowing, 

been  rowing, 

been  row  ingr 

P.    be  rowed; 

be  rowed ; 

been  rowed; 

been  rowed; 

0.    take, 

take, 

taken, 

taken, 

Pr.  be  taking, 

be  taking, 

been  taking, 

been  taking, 

P.    be  taken. 

be  taken. 

been  taken. 

been  taken. 

ADVERBS  59 


6.  ADVERBS. 

If  I  say,  "He  reasons  correctly,  speaks  fluently,  and  persuades  earnestly;* 
"Walk  up,  walk  down,  walk  in]'1  "  Very  tall,  horribly  ugly,  surprisingly  abrupt, 
more  ingenious,  most  eloquent,  very  powerfully,  quite  fast ;"  you  seo  that  the 
slanting  words  tell  how,  when,  where,  or  to  what  degree,  a  thing  is  done ;  also 
how  or  in  what  degree  a  quality  or  property  exists ;  and  being  most  generally 
applied  or  added  to  verbs,  these  words  are  called  adverbs.  "What,  then,  is  an  advert  ? 

An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning 
of  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb.     See  above. 

Some  entire  phrases — as,  long  ago,  in  vain,  to  and  fro,  by  and  by,  the  more,  the 
less,  sooner  or  later — are  generally  used  as  adverbs,  and  called  adverbial  phrases, 
or  simply  adverbs.  Adverbs,  indeed,  are  but  shorter  expressions  for  phrases  or 
clauses.  Gracefully— in  a  graceful  manner  ;  never=at  no  time ;  occasionally=as 
occasion  requires. 

Do  adverbs  always  strictly  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  or  adverbs  only  ? 

An  adverb  sometimes  relates  to  a  phrase  or  propo- 
sition, and  sometimes  it  modifies  a  word  with  reference 
to  a  substantive  or  phrase. 

Ex. — "  He  saded  nearly  \  round  the  world."  "  He  was  so  young,  so  gen- 
erous, so  |  everything  that  we  are  apt  to  like  in  a  young  man." — Irving.  '"Twas 
better  so  to  close,  than  longer  wait  to  part  entirely  foes." — Byron.       "None 


Exercises. 

Give,  in  the  order  of  the  conjugation,  the  participles,  then  the  infinitives : — 

Move,  rise,  spring,  degrade,  drown,  invigorate,  overwhelm,  bleed. 

Change  into  the  other  tenses  of  the  same  mood : — 

I  write,  I  may  write,  If  I  write,  If  I  be  writing,  To  write. 

Conjugate  fully  the  verbs  rule,  permit,  carry,  strike,  see. 

The  verb ;  regular  or  irregular ;  transitive  or  intransitive ;  mood,  tense,  and 
form ;  person  and  number, — and  why  :-— 

He  is  reading  law.  We  Lave  slept.  She  died.  Were  we 
surpassed.  You  had  sent  him.  Take  care,  lest  you  lose  it.  My 
time  might  have  been  improved  better.       The  corn  was  ripening. 

Conjugate  each  of  the  following  verbs,  beginning  with  the  first  person  singular,  and 
stopping  with  the  subject : — The  boy  learns.  (Thus  :  Singular,  1st  person,  J  learn; 
2d  person,  You  learn;  3d  person,  He,  or  the  boy,  learns.)  The  leaves  are  falling. 
Flowers  must  fade.    Jane  reads.    Jane  and  Eliza  read.     Jane  or  Eliza  reads. 

Tell  of  what  mood  and  tense,  then  conjugate  throughout  the  tense,  beginning  with 
the  first  person  singular  : — I  imagine.  He  suifered.  We  have  lost  it.  I  had  been 
ploughing.  I  will  visit.  Were  I.  Had  I  been.  If  he  were.  Were  I  invited. 
Had  I  been  invited.  If  I  be  invited.  They  shall  have  written.  I  lay.  We  read. 
It  may  pass.  You  should  have  come.  We  may  have  been  robbed.  I  was  speak- 
ing. It  is  rising.  You  might  be  preparing.  Had  you  been  studying.  Ho  you  hope? 
Did  she  smile  ?  If  I  do  fail.  If  thou  rely.  Thou  art.  Art  thou  ?  He  forgiveth. 
Dost  thou  not  forgive  ?    It  must  have  happened.    They  are  gone.    Thou  art  going. 

Predicate  each  of  the  following  verbs  correctly  of  thou  ;  then  of  he,  and  of  they  : 
—Am,  was,  have  been,  would  have  been,  are  deceived,  had  been,  do  say,  did 
maintain,  gave,  touched,  cast,  amass,  recommend,  be  discouraged,  shall  have  been, 
Will  pardon,  may  have  been  rejoicing,  was  elected,  should  have  been  elected. 


60  ADVERBS. 

are  perfect,  no,  not  one."     (No,  like  an  adverb  of   emphasis,   strengthens  the 

negative  proposition.)       "But  chiefly  Thou,  0  Spirit instruct  me." — Milton. 

"John  only  \  bought  the  horse."  "Can  not  you  go?"  differs  from  "Can  you 
not  go?"  "Hannibal  sailed  for  Cadiz ;  and,  on  his  arrival  \  there,  the  popula- 
tion came  out  to  greet  him."  (When  he  had  arrived  there.)  There  seems  to 
modify  the  verb  lurking  in  the  noun.  "  The  fame  \  hereof  went  abroad." — 
Bible.  (The  fame  of  this.)  "From  stars  |  above  to  flowers  |  below.  From 
yonder  stars  to  these  flowers.)  Adjuncts=adjectives  or  adverbs,  and  can  there- 
fore be  modified  by  adverbs.  Predicates  and  participial  or  infinitive  phrases 
resemble  verbs,  and  can  bo  modified  in  the  same  way.  When  the  adverb,  as  in 
the  last  three  examples,  has  the  sense  of  an  adjective  adjunct,  it  is  probably  best 
to  purse  it  as  an  adjective. 

From  what  are  most  adverbs  derived  ? 

From  adjectives,  by  adding  ly. 

Ex. — Bad,  badly;  careful,  carefully;  merry,  merrily. 

How  can  you  tell,  in  doubtful  cases,  whether  the  adjective  or  the  adverb 
Bhould  be  used  ? 

To  express  manner  or  describe  the  act,  the  adverb 
should  be  used ;  to  describe  the  object,  the  adjective. 

Ex. — "  Things  look  favorable  this  morning."     (Are  favorable.)       "  He  looks  \ 
skillfully  at  the  moon,  through  his  telescope."     "  We  arrived  safe."     (We  were  safe, 
when  we  arrived.)    When  the  verb  can  be  changed  to  the  neuter  verb  be  or 
become,  the  adjective  is  required. 

If  adverbs  describe  or  limit  as  well  as  adjectives,  can  they  also  be  compared  ? 

Adverbs,  like  adjectives,  admit  of  comparison ;  but 
a  smaller  proportion  of  adverbs  can  be  compared,  and 
they  are  more  frequently  compared  by  more  and  most 

Ex. — Thus,  we  can  say,  "Slow,  slower,  slowest;  lively,  livelier,  liveliest;"  but 
we  must  say,  "  So,  more  so,  most  so ;  wisely,  more  wisely,  most  wisely." 

What  do  most  adverbs  express  ? 

Manner,  Place,  Time,  or  Degree. 

Ex. — Thus,  well,  merrily,  gayly ;  here,  there ;  now,  then  ;  very,  more,  most. 

List    of   Adverbs. 

Since  it  is  not  unfrequently  difficult  to  determine  whether  a  given  word  is  an 
adverb  or  not,  or  to  what  class  of  adverbs  it  should  be  referred,  a  large  catalogue 
is  given  below,  which  should  be  carefully  and  thoroughly  studied.  The  classifi- 
cation,  too,  is  more  minute  than  it  usually  is  ;  because  it  is  supposed  that  the 
nature  and  various  powers  of  the  adverbs  can  be  better  learned  by  this  means. 

Manner,  Mode,  or  Quality.     How  ? 

So,  thus,  well,  ill,  how,  wisely,  foolishly,  justly,  somehow,  anyhow,  however, 
howsoever,  otherwise,  else,  likewise,  like,  alike,  as,  extempore,  headlong,  length- 
wise, across,  aslant,  astride,  adrift,  amain,  apace,  apart,  asunder?  amiss,  anew, 
fast,  together,  separately,  aloud,  accordingly,  agreeably,  necessarily,  in  vain,  in 
brief,  at  once,  in  short,  foot  by  foot,  so  so,  so  and  so,  helter-skelter,  hurry-skurry, 
namely,  suddenly,  feelingly,  surprisingly,  trippingly,  lovingly,  hurriedly,  mourn- 
fully, proportionally,  exactly,  heavily,  lightly ;  and  many  others  ending  with  ly, 
and  formed  from  adjectives  or  present  participles. 


ADVERBS.  01 

Flace.      Where?      Whence?      Whither? 

Of  place  absolute :  Here,  there,  yonder,  where,  everywhere,  somewhere,  uni- 
versally, nowhere,  wherever,  anywhere,  herein,  therein,  wherein,  hereabouts, 
thereabouts,  whereabouts,  hereabout,  thereabout,  abed,  aground,  on  high,  all  over, 
here  and  there. 

Of  place  reckoned  raoir  some  point:  Whence,  hence,  thence,  elsewhere,  away, 
far,  afar,  far  off,  out,  remotely,  abroad,  above,  forth,  below,  ahead,  aloof,  outwards, 
ft  about,  around,  beneath,  before,  behind,  over,  under,  within,  without,  from  within, 
from  without. 

Of  place  reckoned  to  some  point :  Whither,  thither,  hither,  in,  up,  down,  up- 
wards, downwards,  forwards,  liitherward,  homeward,  aside,  ashore,  afield,  aloft, 
aboard,  aground,  nigh. — The  forms  upward,  downward,  backward,  etc.,  are  aLo 
used  as  adverbs. 

Of  order :  Firstly,  secondly,  thirdly,  etc.,  next,  lastly,  finally,  at  last,  in  fine. 

Time.  When?  How  long?  How  often?  How  soon?  How 
long  ago? 

Of  time  absolute :  Ever,  never,  always,  eternally,  perpetually,  constantly,  for- 
ever, incessantly,  everlastingly,  evermore,  aye. 

Of  time  relative  ;  i.  e.,  reckoned  with,  to,  or  from  some  other  time:  When,  when- 
ever, then,  meanwhile,  meantime,  as,  whiKi,  whilst,  till,  until,  after,  afterward, 
afterwards,  subsequently,  before,  ere,  late,  early,  betimes,  seasonably. 

Of  time  repeated :  Again,  often,  sometimes,  occasionally,  seldom,  rarely,  fre- 
quently, now  and  then,  ever  and  anon,  daily,,  weekly,  hourly,  monthly,  yearly, 
anew,  once,  twice,  thrice,  four  times,  etc. 

Of  time  present :  Now,  to-day,  nowadays,  at  present,  yet  (=heretofore  and 
now),  as  yet. 

Of  time  past:  Yesterday,  heretofore,  recently,  lately,  of  late,  already,  formerly, 
just,  just  now,  anciently,  since,  hitherto,  long  since,  long  ago. 

Of  time  future :  Hereafter,  henceforth,  soon,  to-morrow,  shortly,  erelong,  by 
and  by,  presently,  instantly,  immediately,  straightway,  forthwith,  not  yet,  anon. 

Degree.     How  much?     How  little?     To  what  extent? 

Adverbs  of  decree  are  not  easily  classified  ;  for  adverbs  from  several  other  clashes,  espe* 
daily  when  they  are  to  modify  adjectives  or  adverbs,  may  be  used  to  express  degree.  The 
following  adverbs,  to  the  dash-line,  are  not  all  strictly  adverbs  of  degree. 

Adverbs  showing  how  much,  to  what  extent,  or  in  what  degree:  Much, more,  most, 
greatly,  far,  further,  very,  too,  little,  less,  J  east,  extra,  mostly,  entirely,  chiefly, 
principally,  mainly,  generally,  commonly,  usually,  in  general,  fully,  full,  com- 
pletely,  totally,  wholly,  perfectly,  all,  altogether,  quite,  exceedingly,  immeasurably, 
immensely,  excessively,  boundlessly,  infinitely,  clear,  stark,  nearly,  well-nigh, 
partly,  partially,  intensely,  scarcely,  scantily,  precisely,  enough,  exactly,  even, 
everso,  just,  equally,  sufficiently,  the,  as,  so,  how,  however,  somewhat,  at  all. 

Of  exclusion  or  emphasis :  Merely,  only,  but,  alone,  simply,  barely,  just,  particu- 
larly, especially,  in  particular. 

Adverbs  implying  something  additional  to  what  has  been  mentioned,  or  something 
beyond  what  might  be  expected,  and  often  with  emphasis:  Also,  besides,  else,  still, 
yet,  too,  likewise,  withal,  moreover,  furthermore,  however,  extra,  eke,  even,  never- 
theless, anyhow. 

Adverbs  implying  cause  or  means :  Why,  wherefore,  therefore,  hence,  thence, 
consequently,  accordingly,  whereby,  hereby,  thereby. 

Of  negation:  Not,  nay,  no,  nowise,  noway,  noways,  by  no  means. 

Of  affirmation,  admittance,  or  emphasis :  Truly,  doubtless,  undoubtedly,  un- 
questionably, forsooth,  indeed,  well,  very  well,  well  then,  yes,  yea,  ay,  verily, 
surely,  certainly,  really,  assuredly,  amen,  of  course,  to  be  sure. 

Of  doubt  or  uncertainty :  Perhaps,  probably,  possibly,  perchance,  peradventure, 
haply,  mayhap,  may-be. 

The  adverbs  of  the  last  three  classes  are  sometimes  termed  modal  adverbs ; 


G2  PKEPOSITIONS. 

because  they  show,  it  is  said,  "  the  manner  of  assertion."  They  have  a  more  di- 
rect reference  to  the  mind  of  the  speaker  than  the  others  have.  We  may  deny  or 
refuse,  hesitate,  consent ;  disbelieve,  doubt,  believe ;  pass  from  strong  negation 
through  doubt  into  strong  positive  assertion,  and  vice  versa. 

Expletive  Adverbs.  These  serve  merely  to  begin  sentences,  in  order  to  render 
them  less  blunt  or  more  sprightly  ;  as,  There,  well,  why. 

Conjunctive  Adverbs.  These  connect  as  well  as  modify.  They  are  usually  ad- 
verbs of  time,  place,  or  manner  ;  as,  When,  where,  while,  till,  as,  etc.  ^ 

Interrogative  Adverbs.  These  are  those  adverbs  of  the  foregoing  classes,  which 
are  used  to  ask  questions;  as,  Why  i  where  ?  when?  how ?  whither  i 

From  the  foregoing  list,  it  may  be  seen  that  the  some  word  may  sometimes  bo 
referred  to  one  class  of  adverbs,  and  sometimes  to  another,  according  to  its  mean- 
ing. "  I  have  just  come."  {Time.)  "  It  is  just  full ;"  i.  e.,  neither  more  nor 
less.    {Extent  or  degree.) 

The  pupil,  after  having  carefully  studied  the  foregoing  catalogue,  will  probably 
be  able  to  refer  any  adverb  not  in  it  to  its  proper  class.  Ir  parsing,  when  an  ad- 
verb can  not  be  easily  referred  to  some  special  class,  or  for  the  sake  of  saving  time, 
it  will  be  sufficient  to  refer  the  adverb  to  the  general  class  to  which  it  belongs,— 
to  call  it  simply  an  adverb  of  manner,  place,  time,  or  degree. 

Will  you  mention  six  adverbs  of  manner  f — three  of  place  where  ? — three  of  place 
whence  ? — three  of  place  whither  ? — three  of  order  ? — three  of  time  absolute  ? — three  of  time 
relative  ? — three  of  time  repeated  ? — three  of  time  present  ? — three  of.  time  past  ? — three  of 
time  future f — six  of  degree? — three  implying  exclusion? — three  implying  something 
additional? — three  of  cause? — three  of  negation  ? — three  of  affirmation  ? — three  of  doubt  i 
— three  expletive  adverbs? — six  conjunctive  adverbs? — one  interrogative  adverb  of  man* 
tier,  one  of  place,  and  one  of  time  ? — six  adverbial  phrases  ? 

7.  PREPOSITIONS. 

When  I  say,  h  The  horses  are  in  the  ferry-boat,  the  ferry-boat  is  on  the  river, 
and  the  river  is  between  the  hills;"  you  see  that  the  words  in,  on,  and  between, 
show  how  different  objects  are  relatively  situated.  These  little  words  are  called 
p>repositions  ;  because  preposition  means  placing  before,  and  prepositions  must 
generally  be  placed  before  nouns,  to  make  the  latter  capable  of  being  used  as 
descriptive  words.     What,  then,  is  a  preposition  ? 

A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  govern*  a  noun 
or  pronoun,  and  show  its  relation  to  some  other  word. 

Ex. — In,  on,  under,  above,  over,  around,  at,  from,  to,  through.  A  rabbit  in  a 
hollow  tree.     (What  in  what  ?)      How  sweetly  bloom  the  violets  on  yonder  bank  1 

Two  prepositions  are  sometimes  combined,  and  some  phrases  are  constantly 
used  in  the  sense  of  prepositions.  The  former  expressions  may  be  called  complex 
prepositions ;  the  latter,  prepositional  phrases ;  or  both  may  be  termed  simply 
prepositions.     See  the  List, 


Exercises. 

The  adverbs,  and  why ;  of  what  hind,  and  what  they  modify: — 

Wisely,  now,  here,  very.  The  horse  runs  swiftly.  G-od  is  everywhere. 
Never  before  did  I  see  her  look  so  pale.  These  things  have  always  been  so. 
I  have  been  too  idle  heretofore,  but  hencerbrth  I  will  study  more  diligently. 
Your  book  is  more  beautiful.  He  was  lately  here.  You  do  not  know  him  as  well 
as  I  do.     The  hall  was  brilliantly  illuminated,  and  densely  crowded  with  hearers. 

Compare  late,  soon,  early,  much,  little,  well,  ill,  long,  far,  proudly,  heroically. 

*  Govern,  to  have  such  influence  upon  as  to  cause  the  case  or  form  of. 


PREPOSITIONS. 


03 


What  does  a  preposition  usually  join  to  some  other  word  or  part  of  the  sentence  ? 

A  substantive  denoting  the  place,  time,  possessor, 
cause,  means,  manner,  or  some  other  circumstance. 

Ex. — The  apples  hang  ON  the  tree.  We  have  snow  in  winter.  He  was 
stabbed  by  a  volunteer,  with  the  sword  of  a  Kentuckian.       To  write  with  ease. 

What  is  an  adjunct  ? 

An  adjunct*  is  a  preposition  with  its  object,  or 
with  the  words  required  after  it  to  complete  the  sense- 

Ex. — The  wind  glides  in  waves  \  over  the  bristling  barley. 

IIow  are  adjuncts  related  to  adjectives,  adverbs,  and  possessives  ? 

They  are  their  equivalents ;  they  often  relieve  them, 
or  supply  their  deficiency  ;  and  they  are  probably  the 
richest  group  of  descriptive  expressions  in  language. 

Ex. — "  A  man  of  wisdom  and  virtue1'1 =K.  wise  and  virtuous  man.  "  To  stand 
here"=To  stand  in  this  place.  "The  beauty  of  Absalom1 '=•= Absalom's  beauty. 
"  A  land  of  liberty."     No  adjective.       "  To  sail  to  New  England."     No  adverb. 

Adjuncts  show  where,  when,  how,  how  long,  of  what  kind,  by  whom,  etc. 

Is  the  preposition  always  expressed  ? 

It  is  sometimes  understood. 

Ex. — "Give  him  his  book"=Grive  his  book  to  him.  "  I  stood  near  him"=l 
stood  near  to  him.     "  He  is  like  his  father"=Ho  is  like  to  or  unto  his  father. 

A  preposition  without  its  object  becomes  an  adverb,  sometimes  an  adjective. 
See  p.  60.  A  preposition  is  sometimes  so  blended  with  a  verb  or  participial 
noun,  as  to  become  a  part  of  it;  as,  "Ho  was  laughed  \  at"  i.  e.,  ridiculed." 
"Our  country  is  worth  fighting  \for." 

List    of   Prepositions. 


A, 

bating, 

ere, 

respecting, 

up, 

atween, 

aboard, 

before, 
behind, 

except? 

round, 

upon, 

atwixt, 

about, 

excepting, 

save, 

versus, 

cross, 

above, 

below, 

for, 

saving, 

withj 

dehors, 

across, 

beneath, 

from, 

since, 

within, 

inside, 

after, 

beside, 

I 

in, 

through, 

without. 

maugre, 

against, 
along, 
amid,     ) 
amidst,  f 

besides, 

into, 

throughout, 

minus, 

between, 
betwixt, 

notwith- 
standing, 

till, 
to, 

Not  Common. 

outside, 
plus, 

beyond, 

of, 

touching, 

Abaft, 

sans, 

among,     ) 
amongst,  | 

but, 

off, 

toward,    ) 
towards,  j 

adown, 

than, 

by, 

on, 

afore, 

thorough, 

around, 

concerning, 

over, 

under, 

aloft, 

via, 

aslant, 

despite, 

past, 
pending, 

underneath, 

alongside, 
aloof. 

withal, 

at, 

down, 

until, 

withinside. 

athwart, 

during, 

per, 

unto, 

aneath, 

Aboard  of, 

as 

for, 

from  before 

,               from  out, 

according  to, 

as 

to, 

from  betwixt,              from 

under, 

contrary  to, 

because  of, 

from  bevond,              out  of, 

along  with, 

from  among, 

from  off, 

round  about. 

Can  you  repeat  tlie  prepositions  that  begin  with  a  ?—b  ?— c  ?—d  f—e  ?—/?— i  f-~ 
n  ?—o?—p  ?—r  ?—s  t—t  ?—u  ?—v  ?—w  t 

*  Ad'junct,  from  the  Latin  ad,  to,  and  junctm,  joined  ;  what  is  joined  to  something  else. 


64  CONJUNCTIONS. 


8.  CONJUNCTIONS. 

When  I  sey,  "John  and  James  write ;"  "  John  writes  and  ciphers  ;"  "  John 
spilt  his  ink  on  the  desk  and  on  the  floor ;"  "  John  writes  twice  every  day,  and 
I  generally  look  at  his  writing ;"  you  see  that  the  word  and  brings  on  something 
more  to  what  has  been  said,  or  joins  together  two  words,  two  phrases,  or  two 
propositions  ;  and  as  conjunction  means  joining  together,  this  word,  and  others  like 
it,  have  been  called  conjunctions.  "What  definition,  then,  may  bo  given  of  a  con- 
junction 1 

A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  other 
words,  and  show  the  sense  in  which  they  are  connected. 

Ex. — Grain  will  be  cheap,  and  perhaps  unsalable.  Grain  will  be  cheap,  for 
the  harvest  is  abundant.  He  rides,  if  he  is  sick.  He  rides,  though  he  is  sick. 
He  rides,  because  he  is  sick. 

Two  conjunctions  are  sometimes  combined,  and  certain  phrases  are  some- 
times used  in  the  sense  of  conjunctions  :  as,  "  His  health,  as  well  as  his  estate,  is 
ruined ;  and  yet  he  still  persists  in  his  course."  The  former  expressions  may  be 
called  complex  conjunctions;  and  the  latter,  conjunctive  phrases;  or  both  may  be 
termed  simply  conjunctions. 

What  is  a  coordinate  conjunction  ? 

A  coordinate  conjunction  connects  parts  of  equal 
rank,  or  parts  of  which  one  does  not  modify  the  other. 

Ex. — And,  but,  or.  "  The  woods  are  sprouting,  and  the  dove  is  cooing." 
nere  and  connects  clauses  which  do  not  depend  on  each  other,  and  therefor© 
they  are  said  to  be  coordinate,  which  means  of  equal  rank. 

What  is  a  subordinate  conjunction  ? 

A  subordinate  conjunction  connects  parts  of  un- 
equal rank,  or  parts  of  which  one  modifies  the  other. 

Ex. — Tf,  that,  since,  because.  "  I  will  work  for  you,  if  you  pay  me." 
Here  if  connects  two  clauses,  of  which  one  depends  on  the  other,  and  therefore 
the  dependent  one  is  said  to  be  subordinate,  which  means  ranking  under. 


Exercises. 

Mention  the  corresponding  adverb : — 

True,  new,  sure,  good,  (well,)  glaring,  studious,  ardent,  bad,  patient,  noble, 
lazy,  profuse,  slavish,  richer,  (more  richly,)  richest,  plainer,  severest,  necessary, 
graphic,  critic,  order,  grammar,  history,  arithmetic,  geography. 

With  vigor;  in  a  careless  manner;  without  care;  in  what  place;  from  what 
cause;  in  this  place;  in  that  place;  at  all  times;  at  the  present  time:  in  the 
lowest  degree ;  at  that  time  ;  one  time  ;  from  instinct ;   by  the  year. 

The  prepositions,  and  why ;  and  between  what  they  show  the  relation  : — 
Flowers  are  growing  along  the  rivulet.  I  saw  him,  through  a  window. 
The  bear  was  attacked  by  the  dogs,  and  chased  through  a  cane-brake  into  the 
river.  My  dinner  is  in  my^  basket  under  the  bench.  Beneath  the  oak  lie  acorns 
in  abundance.  The  hog  never  looks  up  to  him  who  thresl'es  down  the  acorns. 
By  assisting  me  you  will  confer  a  favor  on  me.  Tt  happened  since  corning,  and 
before  eleven  o'clock.       They  were  rowing  up  the  river  •  but  we,  down. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  65 

What  is  a  corresponding  or  correlative  conjunction  ? 

A  corresponding  conjunction  suggests  another  con- 
junction, and  assists  it  in  connecting  the  same  parts. 

Ex. — I  will  neither  buy  nor  sell.     Though  he  reproves  me,  yet  I  esteem  him. 

By  examining  the  beginning  of  this  section,  what  words  would  you  infer  may 
be  connected  by  conjunctions? 

Words  of  almost  any  part  of  speech. 

Where  are  conjunctions  mostly  used? 

In  connecting  the  parts  of  long  sentences. 

Are  conjunctions  ever  understood  ? 

Sometimes  they  are ;  and  other  words  are  generally 
understood  after  them. 

Ex. — "Rout,  [and]  ruin,  [and]  panic,  scattered  all."  "I  knew  [that]  ho 
had  lost  it."       "  You  may  first  read  this  sentence,  and  then  [you  may]  parse  it." 

How  may  adverbs,  prepositions,  and  conjunctions  be  distinguished,  or  what  is 
the  chief  characteristic  of  eaeh  class  ? 

Adverbs  modify  or  limit ;  prepositions  govern  sub- 
stantives in  the  objective  case  ;  and  conjunctions 
connect. 

Ex. — u  He  took  but  one  apple" — adverb.  "  I  saw  all  but  him" — preposition. 
u  I  saw  him,  but  he  would  not  come" — conjunction. 

List   of  Conjunctions. 

!•  Conjunctions  implying  continuance  or  addition,  simply  or  emphatically : 
And,  as  well  as,  again,  also,  besides,  both,  moreover,  furthermore,  even,  nay,  so 
(=»also).     (Copulative  conjunctions.) 

2.  Separation  or  choice :  Or,  nor,  either,  neither,  or  else.  (Alternative  or  dis- 
junctive conjunctions.) 

3.  Contrariety,  restriction,  or  reservation:  But,  yet,  still,  however,  howso- 
ever, nevertheless,  notwithstanding,  unless  (==»but  not. . .  if),  except,  that,  save. 
(Adversative  or  restrictive  conjunctions.) 

4.  Comparison:  Than,  as.     (Comparative  conjunctions.) 

5.  Concession :  Although,  though,  even  if,  even  though,  notwithstanding, 
albeit;  and  perhaps,  what  though  (—although).     (Concessive  conjunctions.) 

0.  Condition  or  doubt :  If,  unless  (=if  not),  whether,  provided,  provided 
that,  in  case  that,  so,  except,  lest.     (Conditional  or  contingent  conjunctions.) 

7.  Cause  or  reason :  Because,  for,  since,  as,  seeing,  inasmuch  as,  forasmuch 
as,  whereas.     (Causal  conjunctions^) 

8.  Consequence  or  inference :  Then,  so,  therefore,  wherefore.  (Illative  con- 
junctions.) 

9.  Purpose,  motive,  or  statement :  That,  so  that,  in  order  that,  lest,  so  as. 


10.   Corresponding  conjunctions:   Either — or;    neither — nor;    whether— or.* 
if— then  ;  though,  or  although — yet ;  both — and ;  as — so  j  as — as. 


GO  INTERJECTIONS. 

Conjunctions  aro  son\3timcs  accumulated,  or  tako  adverbial  particles,  merclj 
to  strengthen  or  to  modify  slightly  the  connection  between  the  parts.  Somor 
times,  phrases  even,  or  adverbial  particles,  may  be  treated  simply  as  conjunctions, 
unless  great  accuracy  is  required;  or  else  they  may  be  analyzed  more  rigidly 
otherwise,  especially  by  supplying  such  words  as  can  bo  reasonably  supposed  to 
have  been  omitted. 

The  conjunctions  of  the  first  three  classes  are  chiefly  coordinate ;  the  others,  to 
the  tenth  class,  subordinate.  The  former  rather  indicate  the  movements  and 
turns  of  thought;  the  latter  subjoin  parts  that  aro  used  more  or  less  in  tho 
sense  of  parts  of  speech. 

Can  you  mention  two  copulative  conjunctions? — two  alternative?  (Pass  thus 
through  tho  list.) 

9..  INTERJECTIONS. 

•  In  every  language,  there  are  certain  words  used  when  the  mind  is  suddenly 
or  greatly  excited,  in  order  to  give  vent  to  some  strong  feeling  or  sudden  emo- 
tion ;  as,  Oh !  alas !  These  words  are  called  interjections,  a  word  that  means 
thrown  among;  because  interjections  are  so  loosely  combined  with  the  other 
words  of  a  sentence,  that  they  seem  thrown  among  them,  or  seem  to  be  thrown 
into  discourse  by  the  force  of  passion,  without  regard  to  syntax. 
What  is  an  interjection  ? 

An  interject  ion  is  a  word  that  expresses  an  emo- 
tion only,  and  is  not  connected  in  construction  with 
any  other  word. 

Ex. — Alas!  fie  I  0!  oh  1  hurrah!  haill  adieu!  0  Grave!  where  is  thy 
victory!       Ah!  Terentia,  I  am  worn  out  with  grief.       Pshaw !  never  mind  it. 

As  the  heart  is  susceptible  of  many  different  emotions  or  feelings,  the  inter- 
jections may  be  divided  into  various  classes. 

List    of   Interjections. 

1*   Of  sorroio,  grief,  or  pity :  Oh!  alas!  ah!  alack!  hoo !  welladay 

2.  Of  earnestness  or  joy :  0  1  eigh !  hey !  eh  !  ha  ! 

3.  Of  surprise,  wonder,  or  horror:  Hah!  ha!  what!  h'm!  heigh!  strange! 
indeed!  hey-dey!  la!  whew!  zounds!  eh!  ah!  oh!  hoity-toity! 

4.  Of  contempt  or  aversion :  Pshaw!  pish!  tut!  tush!  poll!  fohl  bah!  humph/ 
faugh!  whew!  off!  begone!  avauntl 

5.  Of  exultation  or  approbation :  Aha !  ah !  hey !  huzzah !  hurrah  1  good !  bravo! 

6.  Of  attention  or  calling :  Ho!  lo!  behold!  look!  see!  hark!  la!  heigh-ho! 
soho!  hollo!  halloa!  hoy  I  hold!   whoh!  halt!  'st! 

7.  Of  silence:  Hush!  hist!  whist!  'st !   aw!  mum! 

8.  Of  interrogating :  Eh  ?  hern,  or  h'm  ?     (The  opposite  of  the  preceding  class.) 

9.  Of  detection:  Aha!   oho!  ay-ay! 

10.  Of  laughter :  Ha,  ha,  ha  !  he,  he,  he ! 

11.  Of  saluting  or  parting :  Welcome !  hail !  all-hail !  adieu  /  good-by !  and 
perhaps  good-day !  good-night!   good-morning!    good-evening  1 

It  is  difficult  to  make  a  satisfactory  Classification  of  interjections ;  for  some 
of  them  are  used  in  various  senses.  When  the  learner  meets  with  an  interjec- 
tion, it  is  perhaps  best  that  he  should  determine  its  meaning  from  the  spirit  of  the 
sentence  or  discourse. 

Can  ijou  mention  two  interjections  of  grief? — two  of  joy  ?   (Pass  thus  through  the  List.) 


EULES    OP    SYNTAX.  67 

If  a  man  cultivates  the  earth,  he  may  be  styled  a  farmer  ;  if  the  same 
man  should  engage  in  the  business  of  buying  and  selling  goods,  a  merchant  ; 
if  in  preaching  the  gospel,  a  preacher  :  even  so  the  same  word,  according 
to  its  use,  is  sometimes  of  one  part  of  speech,  and  sometimes  of  another. 

Ex. — "  A  black  horse  ;"  "  To  black  boots  ;"  "  Black  is  a  color."    See  p.  152. 

The  first  black  is  an  adjective ;  the  second,  a  verb  ;  and  the  third,  a  noun. 

lO.   RULES   OF   SYNTAX. 

THE   RELATIONS    OF  WORDS    TO    ONE    ANOTHER,  IN    THE    STRUCTURE    OF 

SENTENCES. 

Words  are  used  to  express  thoughts ;  but  every  thought  requires  two 
or  more  words  to  be  associated  or  grouped  together,  in  order  to  express 
it.  Almost  every  word,  therefore,  is  so  made  or  modified,  or  is  of  such  a 
nature,  that  it  looks  to  some  other  word  for  complete  sense,  and  would  be 
as  unmeaning  and  useless  by  itself  as  a  detached  piece  of  a  steam-engine. 
Ex. — ' 'The  white  house  gleaming  on  yonder  hill,  was  built  long  ago  for  mo 
and  my  family  to  live  in  it."  The  relates  to  fiouse,  showing  that  some  particular 
one  is  meant;  white  relates  to  house,  describing  it;  home  relates  to  was  built,  the 
thing  said  of  it;  gleaming  relates  to  house,  describing  it;  on  relates  to  gleaming 
and  hill,  showing  where ;  hill  relates  to  on,  showing  on  what ;  was  built  relates 
to  house,  showing  what  is  said  of  it ;  long  ago  relates  to  was  built,  showing  when ; 
for  relates  to  was  built  and  me  and  my  family,  showing  the  purpose;  me  and  my 
family  relates  to  for  ;  and  connects  me  and  family,  showing  that  the  two  are  to 
be  taken  together;  my  relates  to  family,  showing  what  family  ;  to  live  relates  to 
me  and  family,  showing  what  we  do;  in  relates  to  it  and  to  live,  showing  where; 
and  it  relates  to  house  as  the  thing  meant,  and  to  in  as  denoting  where.  This 
illustration  may  teach  you,  to  soma  extent,  what  the  following  Rules  mean, 

UjT"  The  teacher  may  show  the  relations  of  words  in  sentences  still  better,  by  writing  the  fore- 
going sentence,  and  the  most  suitable  of  the  following  sentences,  on  the  blackboaid,  and  then  joining 
the  related  words  by  connecting  lines  druwn  above  and  below. 


Exercises. 

The  conjunctions,  what  they  imply,  and  what  they  connect : — 

Him  and  her  we  know ;  but  who  are  you  ?  It  ran  around  the  house,  and 
under  the  floor.  You  must  study,  if  you  would  be  wise.  He  is  neither  edu- 
cated, nor  naturally  wise.       I  will  either  come  or  send. 

Tlie  interjections,  and  why  ;  then  of  what  kind  : — 

01  oh !  alas !  welcome !  ho !  ah !  tush  1  hurrah  !  Deluded  hopes  I — oh, 
worse  than  death  1       Tut!  such  aristocracy  1      Adieu!  adieu!  dear  native  land. 

Supply  the  words  omitted : — 

A  man  and  woman  were  drowned.  You  may  write,  and  then  cipher.  Give 
him  his  book.  He  is  like  you.  A  book  of  my  sister's.  John  knows  moro 
than  Rufus.  The  first  tree  and  the  fourth  are  dead.  I  have  lost  the  letter 
you  wrote.  Who  bets,  should  be  willing  to  lose.  The  door  opens  to  whoever 
knocks.  ( — any  one  who — )  Here  are  the  marbles:  take  which  is  youis. 
Let  it  be.  Arm,  soldiers!  How  now,  Tubal;  what  news  from  Genoa? 
Sweet  the  pleasure,  rich  the  treasure.      Strange  indeed.      Soon  ripe,  soon  rotten. 

Change  the  position  of  the  words,  without  changing  the  meaning : — 

After  a  painful  struggle,  I  yielded  to  my  fate.  Swe§t  songs  wore  heard  the 
leafy  dells  along.  Me  glory  summons  to  the  martial  seene.  Various,  sincere, 
and  constant  are  the  efforts  of  men  to  attain  happiness.  Gone,  for  ever  gone, 
are  the  happy  days  of  youth.     (See  Gray's  Elegy,  4th  stanza,  p.  131.) 


68  RULES    OF   SYNTAX. 

Rule  I.— Nominatives. 
A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  subject  of  a  finite 
verb,  must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

J*  am.  We  are.  He  is.  (Who  is?)  They  are.  Were  I.  Shall  you  go? 
G-o  thou,  hence.  Thou  dar'st  not.  She  sings  well.  Yonder  comes  the  powerful 
king  of  day.  Come  ye  in  peace  here,  or  come  ye  in  war  ?  There  is  a  calm  fur 
those  v)ho  weep.  Wheat,  corn,  and  tobacco,  are  the  principal  productions.  Largo 
quantities  of  hides  and  tallow  are  exported.  The  man  who  is  industrious,  can 
earn  what  he  needs.  (Who  can  earn  ?  Observe  that  the  nominative  relative  is 
the  subject  of  the  verb  next  to  it^  and  its  antecedent,  of  the  verb  beyond.) 
Who  is  he?  (He  is  who?)  Art  thou  that  traitor  angel,  art  thou  he,  who  first 
broke  peace  in  Heaven  ?  /  have  less  than  he  [has].  Talent  is  full  of  thoughts; 
bud  Genius,  full  of  thought.  To  lie  is  disgraceful.  That  liars  are  not  believed 
when  they  tell  the  truth,  is  a  just  part  of  their  punishment. 

*  /  is  a  pronoun,  in  the  nominative  case  to  am,  according  to  Rule  I.  (Repeat  it.  Pass 
thus  through  all  the  examples  under  each  Rule-;  and,  at  some  future  tiuie,  parse  the  words.) 

Rule  II.— Nominatives. 
A  n!)un  or  proii3M?i  used  independently  or  abso- 
lutely, must  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

Independent. — By  direct  address:  Go,  Tubal*  go.  Plato,  thou  reasonst 
well.  By  exclamation :  Three  thousand  ducats!  'lis  a  good  round  sum.  To  be — 
or  not  to  bj, — that  is  tin  question  1  (Life  or  death, — that  is  the  question!)  By 
pleonasm  or  specification  :  The  Pilgrim  Fathers, — where  are  they?  My  banks 
they  are  furnished  with  bees.     Worcester's  Dictionary,  Unabridged.     (Title.) 

Absolute. | — Before  a  participle:  The  rain  having  ceased,  the  sun  reap- 
peared. Tho  steed  [being]  at  hand,  why  longer  tarry  ?  (Being  is  often  understood.) 
After  a  participle  or  an  infinitive  :  The  vanity  of  being  a  belle.  To  bo  a  good 
Ciristiai^wm  his  highest  ambition.     No  one  suspected  his  being  a  foreigner. 

*  Tu'tnl  is  a  noun  ;  an  I  it  Is  in  the  nominative  case  independent,  by  direct  address,  ac- 
cording to  Rule  II.  t  '•  Sine.}  yon  are  alone,  I  will  return  ;"  "  He  has  becom  e  a  lieutenant  f 
"  There  is  no  doubt  that  he  is  a  patriot;  "There  I*.  no  doubt  that  he  is  patriotic,  etc. 
3ftanga  these  finite  verb*  into  participles  and  infinitives,  and  the  Italic  words  are  absolved, 
or  set  tree,  from  their  former  dependence. 

Rule  III.— Possessives. 
A  noun  or  pronoun  that  limits  the  meaning  of  an- 
other by  denoting  possession,  must  be  in  the  possessive  case. 

John's*  horse.  (That  is,  not  any  horse,  but  the  one  that  belongs  to  John.) 
Sir  Walter  Scott's  works.  Whose  book  is  it,  if  not  mine  [=my  book]  ?  Fultoii's 
invention.  (See  p.  18.)  Boys'  clothing.  Smith's  [store]  and  Barton's  store. 
S.nith,  Allen,  and  Barton's  store.  Call  at  Smith's,  the  bookstlhr.\  (That  is, 
at  Smith's  house  or  store.)  The  captain  of  the  Neptune's  wife.  (Whose  wife, — 
the  captain's  or  the  Neptune's  ?     See  p.  89.)     Evidence  of  their  having  quarreled. 

*  John's  is  a  noun,  in  the  possessive  case,  governed  by  7to>se,  according  to  Rule  II L 
t  Bookseller  is  in  the  possessive  case,  and  agrees  with  Smith's,  according  to  Rule  VII. 

Rule  IV.— Objectives. 
A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  object  of  a  transi- 
tive verb,  must  be  in  the  objective  case. 

I  caught  them*  He  shot  a  deer.  The  soil  produces  cotton,  rice,  and  sugar. 
I  saw  him,  and  he  saw  me.  "  Whom  did  you  hit ?—  John."  (Supply  "I  bit") 
Whom  therefore  ye  ignorautly  worship,  him  declare  I  unto  you.     I  hid  myself 


RULES    OF    SYNTAX.  69 

Teach  us.  Teach  us  grammar.  (See  Oomp.  Gram.,  pp.  14S,  149.)  Teach  me  to 
feel  another's  woe.  G-ive  us  our  daily  bread.  (.Supply  to.)  They  crowned  him 
king.  (See  Rule  Til.)  The  lightnings  flashed  a  brighter  curve.  He  talked 
himself  hoarse.  Having  made  the  law,  enforce  it.  By  reading  good  boolis,  you 
will  improve.  To  see  green  fields,  is  pleasant.  I  knew  him  well,  and  every 
truant  knew.  He  rode  the  horse  ;  and  I.  the  mule.  Most  children  like  to  play — 
like  sleighing  and  skating.  Do  you  know  when  to  send  ?  No  one  knows  how  much 
the  fellow  is  in  debt.  The  sentry  cried  out,  "  Who  goes  there  V  "  Has  Mary 
come  ? — How  can  I  tell  ?"     (Supply  "  whether  she  has  come:'1) 

*  Them  is  a  pronoun,  in  the  objective  case,  being  the  object  of  the  verb  caught,  accord- 
ing to  iiule  IV. 

Rule  Y—  Objectives. 
A  noun  or  pronotm  used  as  the  object  of  a  prepo- 
sition, must  be  in  the  objective  case. 

It  was  sent  by  me*  to  him.  (That  is,  we  could  not  say,  when  spoaking  cor- 
rectly, "It  was  sent  by  I  to  he")  A  melon  for  three  pears  and  five  peaches. 
By  reading  in  good  books,  you  will  improve.  Come,  walk  with  me  the  jungle 
through.  Lend  me  your  knife.  (Supply  to.)  Here  he  had  need  all  circumspec- 
tion. "  Of  whom  did  you  buy  it  ? — Jones."  The  river  flowed  from  under  the 
palaces.  Sin  never  comes  except  to  scold.  The  question  of  what  are  to  be  the 
powers  of  the  crown,  is  superior  to  that  of  who  is  to  ivear  it. 

*  JTe  is  a  pronoun,  in  the  objective  ease,  governed  by  the  preposition  by,  etc. 

Rule  VI.— Objectives. 
A  noun  or  pronoun  used  without  a  governing 
word,  but   limiting   like   an  adjunct  or  adverb  some 
other  word,  must  be  in  the  objective  case. 

The  street  is  a  mile*  long,  and  forty  feet  wide.  (Long  and  wide  to  what  ex- 
tent?) He  remained  five  days.  {During  five  days.  A  preposition  can  generally 
be  supplied.  These  objectives  are  abridged  adjuncts  without  the  preposition,  just 
as- in  vain,  in  short,  etc.,  are  abridged  adjuncts  without  their  objects.)  The  horsa 
ran  six  miles.  It  is  a  ton  heavier.  I  do  not  care  a  straio.  The  milk  is  a  little 
sour.  The  knife  is  worth  a  dollar.  (Here  worth  is  an  adjective — valuable  to  ih& 
extent  of  a  dollar.)  He  went  home.  I  was  taught  music,  and  she  was  taught 
it.     "Ho  has  been  hero  five  timesP     And  perhaps,  "  Five  times/owraro  twenty." 

Most  nouns  under  this  Rule  denote  some  estimate  of  space,  time,  weight,  or  value. 

*  Mile  is  a  noun,  and  in  the  objective  case,  limiting  long,  according  to  Rula  VI. 

Rule  VII.— Same  Cases. 
A  noun  or  pronoun  used  for  explanation  or  em- 
phasis, by  being  predicated  of  another,  or  put  in  appo- 
sition with  another,  must  be  in  the  same  case* 

This  Kule  embraces  two  kinds  of  construction:  same  case,  by  predication ,* 
and  same  case,  by  apposition.  When  two  substantives  refer  to  the  same  person  or 
thing,  and  an  intransitive  or  passive  verb  joins  them,  the  latter  or  explanatory 
Bubstantive  is  said  to  be  predicated  of  the  other,  and  is  called  a  predicate  nomina- 
tive or  substantive;  as,  "Jackson  was  the  general  who  was  _  elected  President." 
When  no  verb  joins  them,  the  substantives  are  said  to  be  in  apposition,  or  the 
latter  is  called  an  appositive;  as,  "  Jackson,  the  general,  was  at  Lake  Ponlchartrain." 
Miscellaneous:  Taxes,  endless  taxes,  are  the  consequences  of  corruption.  Ho, 
feeing  the  eldest  son,  inherited  the  estate.  She  looks  a  goddess,  and  she  walks  a 
queen.  They  made  him  captain.  He  was  made  captain.  If  we  whip  the  enemy, 
it  is  a  victory ;  if  we  do  not,  we  call  it  strategy.  Tea  is  the  dried  leaves  of  a 
Chinese  shrub.     Our  liberties,  our  greatest  blessing,  wo  shall  not  surrender.     I 

4 


YO  EULES    OF   SYNTAX. 

nm  the  man..  Hail,.  Sabbath  1  thee  I  hail — the  poor  man's  day.  Yo  scenes  of 
my  childhood.  Explain  tne  terms  reason  and  instinct.  They  bore  each  [one]  a 
banner.  They  legard  winter  as  "the  season  of  domestic  enjoyment.  I  myself 
wont.  It  was  I.  What  is  lie  ?  (Ho  is  what  ?)  Whom  do  you  take  me  to  be  ? 
Which  is  which  ?  (Which  is  the  right  one  ?)  It  is  easy  to  spend  money.  It  ia 
not  known  how  the  Egyptians  embalmed  t'teir  dead. 

*  One  Eule.  Compare  with  "  A  good  boy,"  "  The  boy  is  good  '*— also  one  Rule,  t  Ilud* 
son  is  a  noun,  in  the  objective  case,  tj  agree  with  river,  according  to,  etc. 

Rule  VIII— Two  Cases. 
The  relative  tvhat,  or  a  like  term  when  its  form 
allows  them,  may  supply  two  cases* 

I  took  what  suited  me.f  Whoeve?- sins,  shall  suffer.  I  will  employ  xuhom soe ver 
you  recommend.  Tako  whichever  horse  you  like.  Tho  lion  will  kill  whatever 
man  touches  him. 

*  This  Rule  is  merely  a  convenience  ;  for  it  can  be  dispensed  with,  by  applying  two  other 
Rules,  t  What  is  a  relative  pronoun,  representing  thing  and  which;  and  it  is  used  here  as 
the  object  oitoofc  and  tho  subject  of  suited,  according  to  Rule  VIII. 

Rule  IX.— Pronouns. 
A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent,  in  gen- 
der, person,  and  number* 

Mary  lost  her  book.f  Tho  best  throw  with  tho  dice,  is  to  throw  them  away. 
Liberty  has  God  on  her  side.  John  and  James  know  their  lessons.  (What 
makes  a  singular  or  plural  subject,  makes  also  a  singular  or  plural  antecedent.  Seo 
p.  42.)  Neither  John  nor  James  knows  his  lesson.  Every  heart  best  knows  its 
own  sorrows.  You,  Henry,  and  I,  must  weed  our  garden.  Pupils,  obey  your 
teachers.  The  people  and  their  rulers  The  mob  and  its  leader.  And  there  her 
brood  the  partridge  led.  (The  antecedent  sometimes  follows  tho  pronoun.)  Too 
low  they  build,  who  build  beneath  tho  stars.  (A  relative  may  refer  to  a  different 
pronoun  as  its  antecedent.)  Who  that  knaws  him,  would  trust  him  ?  You  are 
very  sick,  and  I  am  sorry  for  it.  (The  antecedent  may  bo  a  phrase  or  clause.) 
You  wrote  to  me,  which  was  all  you  did.  Said  Joseph  to  his  brother,  "  I  will 
go  with  you." 

*  This  Rule  is  applied,  only  when  it  is  definitely  known  what  the  antecedent  is.  t  Her  is 
a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  feminine  gender,  3d  person,  and  singular  number,  to  agree  with 
Mary,  etc. 

Rule  X.— Articles  and  Adjectives. 
An  article  or  an  adjective  belongs  to  the  noun  or 
pronoun  to  which  it  relates. 

Articles. — Bring  a*  |  rose  from  the  |  garden.  A  \  gardener's  wages.  Once 
•upon  a  summer's  day.  A  j  noun  and  pronoun.  (Supply  a.)  The  |  house  and 
lot.  An  |  industrious  people,  having  a  |  great  many  curious  inventions.  (The  ar- 
ticle relates  to  the  entire  phrase  after  it.) 

Adjectives. — Tins  apple  is  ripe.  I  am  sorry  that  you  are  not  letter.  Tho 
clay  burned  white.  The  story  is  interesting.  A  thick  stone  wall.  Every  \  seven 
days.  (Every  relates  to  the  phrase.)  The  truly  good  [people]  are  happy.  To 
live  comfortably,  is  desirable.     (What  is  desirable  ?) 

Note  X. — An  adjective  is  sometimes  usea  absolutely  after  a  participle  or  an 

infinitive. 

To  be  good  is  to  be  happy.  (Goodness  is  happiness.)  Tho  way  to  be  happy,  is  to 
ha  good.  The  dread  of  being  poor.  (This  Note  can  often  ha  dispensed  with,  by 
regarding  the  phrase  as  a  noun,  or  by  supplying  a  nonn.    See  Comp.  Gram.,  p.  18S.) 

*  A  is  an  article,  and  belongs  to  rose,  according  to  Rule  X. 


RULES    OF    SYNTAX.  *l\ 

Rule  XI.— Finite  Verbs. 
A  finite  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject,  in  per- 
son and  number. 

Hew.*  (Who  is?)  They  am  Thou  art  lam.  Tea  and  silk  are  brought^ 
from  the  East.  (See  p.  42.)  A  week  or  a  month  soon  passes^  away.  Every 
horse  and  mule  was  taken.  You,  he,  and  I,  are  allowed^  to  go.  (We.)  You  of 
I  am  mistaken.  (You  are,  etc.)  Our  people  are\  enterprising.  No  nation  is  at 
war  with  us.  Down  went  the  ship  and  her  gallant  crew.  Down  went  the  ship, 
with  her  gallant  crew.  The  saint,  the  father,  and  the  husband,  prays.  (One 
person.)  The  "Pleasures  of  Hope"  was  written  by  Campbell.  (One  thing.) 
To  turn  and  fly  was  now  impossible.  For  thine  is  the  kingdom,  and  the  power, 
and  the  glory.  (Repeat  thine  is.)  John,  as  well  as  his  brother,  was  drafted. 
Believe  [thou J  and  obey.  Read,  John.  He  that  seeketh,  findeth.  To  write  ten  lines 
a  day,  |  is  sufficient.  That  so  many  are  ruined  in  large  cities,  |  is  owing  to  bad 
examples.     All  work  and  no  play,  makes  Jack  a  dull  boy.     (To  have  all,  etc.) 

*  Is  is  a  verb,  in  the  31  p.,  s.  n.,  to  asrree  with  He,  according  to,  etc.  t  Say,— "and  in  the 
3d  pcrs.,  plur.  n.,  toa^ree  with  Tea  and  silk,  a  plural  subject,"  etc.  J  Say, — "to  agree  with 
week  <>r  month,  a  singular  subject,"  etc.  §  Say.— "to  agree  with  You,  he,  and  /,  equivalent 
to  We."    I  Say,—"  to"  agree  with  people,  a  collective  noun  that  expresses  a  plural  idea,"  etc. 

Note  XT. — In  a  few  peculiar  expressions,  finite  verbs  are  used  without  a 
suitable  subject,  or  without  any  subject. 

Ex. — "  Methinks."     And  perhaps,  "  God  said,  Let  us  make  man  in  our  image." 
"  Forthwith  on  all  sides  to  his  aid  was  rim 
By  angels  many  and  strong." — Milton's  P.  L.,  B.  VI. 

Rule  XII.— Participles  and  Infinitives. 

A  participle  relates  to  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  is  the 
subject  of  the  act  or  state. 

An  infinitive  relates  to  an  expressed  or  indefinite  sub- 
ject ;  and  it  may  besides  modify  the  meaning,  or  complete 
the  construction,  of  some  other  part  of  the  sentence. 

The  last  clause  of  this  Rule  often  applies  also  to  participles.  The  subject  of  a 
participle  or  an  infinitive,  is  the  noun  or  pronoun  denoting  the  object  to  which  the 
act  or  state  belongs ;  and  it  may  be  in  the  objective  case,  as  well  as  in  the  nominative. 
Columbus  became  wearied*  and  disheartened  by  impediments  thrown  in  his 
way.  The  Passions  oft,  to  hear  her  shell,  thronged  around  her  magic  cell.  We 
walked  out  to  see  the  moon  rising.  Now  is  the  timo  to  sell.  A  mountain  so  high 
as  to  be  perpetually  covered  with  snow. 

*  Wearied  is  a  participle,  and  it  relates  to  Columbus,  according  to,  etc.  t  To  hear  is  an 
infinitive  that  relates  to  Passions  as  its  subject,  and  to  thronged,  as  showing  the  purpose, 
according  to,  etc  %  To  tett-  relates  to  an  indefinite  or  unexpressed  subject,  and  modifies 
time, — by  showing  what  time  it  is, — according  to,  etc. 

Note  XII. — A  participle  or  an  infinitive  is  sometimes  used  absolutely  or 
independently. 

To  go  prepared,  is  necessary.  Generally  speaking,  young  men  are  better  for  busi- 
ness than  old  men  are.  To  "go  about,  seeking  employment,  is  irksome.  But,  to 
proceed :  It  has  been  frequently  remarked,  etc.  Every  man  has,  so  to  speak,  several 
strings  by  which  he  may  be  pulled.  (Suitable  words  cangenerally  be  supplied,  to 
avoid  the  necessity  of  using  this  Note.) 

[The  infinitive  is  the  most  irksome  element  in  syntax.  I  therefore  offer  to  teachers  the 
following  Rule  for  trial,  as  one  that  will  reach  all  constructions  of  participles  and  infinitives, 
and  whose  truthfulness  most  examples  strikingly  attest. 

Rule  XII. — A  participle  or  an  infinitive,  being  apart  of  the  ver\ 
relates  to  an  expressed  or  indefinite  subject  ;  and  it  may  besides  have  the  sense 
of  a  noun,  an  adjective,  an  adverb,  or  a  clause] 


12  EULES    OF    SYNTAX. 

Rule  XIII —Adverbs. 
An  adverb  belongs  to  the  word  or  words  which  it 
modifies. 

A  most*  beautiful  horse  galloped  very  \  rapidly  up  the  road.  There  was  nothing 
there  that  I  wanted.  When  will  you  go?  The  cooler  the  water,  the  better  I  liko 
it.  "  Did  you  see  him  ? — No."  (No  relates  to  the  question.  See  p.  59.)  I  con- 
sulted him  once  or  twice,  not  \  oftener.  (Supply  words.)  Secondly,  we  could  wait 
no  |  longer.  "  Will  you  go  therel — I  go  there?  Never."  You  have  perhaps  not 
noticed  quite  all  the  adverbs  in  the  sentence  which  I  have  just  read. 

•  Most  is  an  adverb  of  degree,  modifies  beautiful,  and  belongs  to  it,  according  to,  etc.- 

Note  XIII. — A  conjunctive  adverb  joins  on  something  that  usually  expresses 
the  time,  place,  or  manner  ;  or  that  is  used  in  the  sense  of  an  adverb,  an  ad- 
jective, or  a  noun. 

Ex. — "  Go  when  you  please."  "  The  grave  where  our  hero  was  buried."  (What 
grave  ?)  "  I  know  how  you  got  it."  (Know  what  ?)  "  He  did  as  I  said." 
(How  ?)  In  stead  of  this  Note,  the  Eule  can  be  applied,  by  parsing  the  adverb  as 
relating  to  the  verbs  in  both  propositions. 

Eemark  XIII. — An  adverb  appears  to  be  sometimes  used  independently. 

Ex. — "  Well,  I  really  don't  know  what  to  do."  "  Why,  that  is  a  new  idea." 
Adverbs  thus  used  partake  somewhat  of  the  nature  of  both  conjunctions  and  in- 
terjections. Yes,  nay,  amen,  etc.,  are  usually  parsed  as  being  independent,  though 
they  nearly  always  relate  to  the  preceding  sentence  or  discourse. 

Eule  XIV.— Prepositions, 
A  preposition  shows  the  relation  between  two  terms, 
and  governs  the  latter  in  the  objective  case. 

The  antecedent  term  may  be  a  noun,  a  pronoun,  an  adjective,  a  verb,  an  adverb,  or 
even  a  phrase  ;  the  subsequent  term  must  be  a  substantive. 

A  man  \  of*  \  wisdom  spoke.  The  man  spoke  \  of  \  wisdom.  Parrhasius  stood 
gazing  upon  the  canvas.  (What  upon^what?)  The  trees  most  beautiful  in. 
spring,  blossomed  along  the  bank  on  the  other  side  of  the  river.  He  took  tho 
slate  from  him  and  me,  and  gave  it  to  her  for  whom  he  had  bought  it.  Oranges 
grow,  like  apples,  on  small  trees.  He  is  too  old  for  service.  He  came  from  be- 
yond Jordan.  Tlirough  glades  and  glooms  the  mingled  measure  stole.  (Terms 
inverted.)     She  has  nothing  to  live  for.     (For  which  to  live.) 

*  Of  is  a  preposition,  and  shows  the  relation  between  spoke  and  toisdom,  etc.  Analysis 
will  always  help  to  show  between  what  words  the  preposition  shows  the  relation. 

Eule  XV.— Conjunctions. 
Conjunctions    connect  clauses  or  sentences;  and 
also  ivords  or  phrases  in  the  same  construction. 

Weeds  \  and  \  briers  now  grow  in  the  field,  because  it  is  not  cultivated.  A 
long  and  cordial  friendship  had  existed  between  him  and  me.  //you  desire  it, 
I  will  both  write  to  him  and  speak  to  him  about  the  matter.  And  so  it  may  be 
that  infancy  is  a  happier  period  than  manhood,  and  manhood  than  old  age.  (Sup^. 
ply  words.) 

Eule  XVI.— Interjections. 
Interjections  have  no  grammatical  connection  with 
other  words. 

Ah  me !     (Ah  !  woe  to  me !)     Oh !  luckless  [am]  I.     Aha  I  caught  at  last. 
Can  you  repent  Rule  1st  ?—2J?—M  ?— 4th  ?— Sthf— Oth  ?—lih?—mt—9th  ?— 10*/t  f— 
llth  f—12th  t—lUh  ?—Uth  ?  -  \bth  t—lMh  f 


SUMMARY.  73 

SUMMARY    OF   PARSING. 

1.  A  noun  is  a  name. 

is  a  proper,  common,  or  collective  noun ;  of  the  masculine,  feminine, 

common,  or  neuter  gender ;  the  first,  second,  or  third  person ;  the  singular  or 
plural  number;  and  the  nominative,  possessive,  or  objective  case.  Rule  I,  II, 
III,  IT,  V,  VI,  VII,  or  VIII. 

2.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  that  supplies  the  place  of  a  noun. 

is  a  personal,  relative,  or  interrogative  pronoun;*  of  the  masculine,  fem- 
inine, common,  or  neuter  gender ;  the  first,  second,  or  third  person ;  the  sin- 
gular or  plural  number;  (Rule  IX,  if  the  pronoun  has  an  antecedent;)  (declen- 
sion ;)  and  in  the  nominative,  possessive,  or  objective  case.  Rule  I,  II,  III,  IV, 
V,  VI,  VII,  or  VIII. 

*  There  may  also  occur  demonstrative,  distributive,  indefinite,  or  reciprocal  pronouns. 

3.  An  article  is  a  word  placed  before  a  noun,  to  show  how 
the  noun  is  applied. 

is  the  definite  or  indefinite  article.     Rule  X. 

4.  An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  qualify  or  limit  the  mean- 
ing of  a  noun  or  pronoun. 

is  a  descriptive  or  a  definitive  adjective ;  (compare  it,  if  it  can  be  com- 
pared ;)  in  the  positive,  comparative,  or  superlative  degree.     Rule  X. 

5.  A  Verb  is  a  word  used  to  affirm  something  of  a  subject. 

is  a  regular  or  an  irregular  verb ;  transitive  or  intransitive ;  (if  transi- 
tive) in  the  active  or  the  passive  voice ;  in  the  indicative,  subjunctive,  potential, 
or  imperative  mood ;  the  present,  past,  future,  perfect,  pluperfect,  or  future-perfect 
tense,  and  the  common,  emphatic,  progressive,  or  ancient  form ;  (conjugation  ;)  in 
the  first,  second,  or  third  person,  and  the  singular  or  plural  number.      Rule  XL 

A  participle  is  a  form  of  the  verb,  that  merely  assumes  the 
act  or  state,  and  is  generally  construed  like  an  adjective. 

is  a  transitive  or  an  intransitive,  active  or  passive  (if  transitive),  present 

or  perfect,  or  compound   present  or   perfect  participle,  from  the   verb  . 

Rule  XIL 

An  infinitive  is  a  form  of  the  verb,  that  begins  generally  with 
to,  and  expresses  no  affirmation. 

is  a  transitive  or  an  intransitive,  active  or  passive  (if  transitive),  present 

or  perfect  infinitive,  from  the  verb .     Rule  XII. 

<>.  An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a 
verb,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb. 

is  an  adverb  of  manner,  place,  time,  or  degree.     Rule  XIII. 

7.  A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  govern  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun, and  show  its  relation  to  some  other  word. 

is  a  preposition,  showing  the  relation  between .     Rulo  XIV. 

8.  A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  other  words, 
and  show  the  sense  in  which  they  are  connected. 

>  is  a  copulative,  adversative,  alternative,  distributive,  comparative,  con- 
ditional, corresponding,  etc.,  conjunction,  or  a  conjunction  expressing  purpose,' 
conclusion,  statement,  etc. ;  and  it  connects .     Rule  XV. 

9.  An  interjection  is  a  word  that  expresses  an  emotion 
only,  and  is  not  connected  in  construction  with  any  other  word. 

is  an  interjection  of  grief,  joy,  surprise,  contempt,  etc.     Rulo  XVI. 


u 


EXERCISES. 


INTEODUCTOKY   EXERCISES. 

Analysis  is  the  resolving  of  a  sentence  into  its  clauses, 
phrases,  and  words,  according  to  the  sense  in  which  they  are  put 
together. 

Parsing  is  the  resolving  of  a  sentence  into  its  parts  of  speech, 
and  telling  their  grammatical  properties. 

Sentence    Building. 
Sentences  are  made  of  words.     The  core  or  chief  combination 
of  words,  in  making  sentences,  is  predication. 

1.   Simplest  Combination  of  Subject  and  Predicate. 

Soldiers  fight.*  Dogs  bark.  Time  flies.  Wolves  howl. 
Hens  cackle.  Doves  coo.  Jewels  glitter.  Bells  are  tolling. 
Bees  were  humming.       Mary  was  chosen.       We  shall  return. 

Analysis. — *  This  is  a  simple  sentence.  The  subject  is  Soldiers,  and  the  pred- 
icate is  fight.  (The  teacher  should  ask  such  questions,  and  require  such  reasons 
to  be  given,  as  he  may  deem  most  instructive  to  the  pupil.) 

Pausing. — Soldiers  is  a  common  noun ;  of  the  masculine  gender,  third  person, 
plural  number;  and  in  the  nominative  case  to  fight,  according  to  Rule  I.  (Repeat 
the  Rule.)  Fight  is  an  irregular  intransitive  verb;  its  principal  parts  are,  present 
fight,  past  fovght,  present  participle  fighting,  perfect  participle  #/0w0^;  and  it  i3  in 
the  third  person,  plural  number,  to  agree  with  its  subject  Soldiers,  according  to 
Rule  XI.  We  is  a  personal  pronoun  ;  of  the  common  gender,  first  person,  plural 
number ;  and  in  the  nominative  case  to  shall  return,  according  to  Rule  I. 

2.  Object  added  to  the  Predicate- Verb. 

Dogs  bite  strangers.*  Wolves  catch  lambs.  Lightning 
strikes  trees.  Raccoons  steal  corn.  Misers  love  gold.  Mer- 
chants sell  goods.       Horses  draw  carriages.       I  shall  see  him. 

Analysis. — *  This  is  a  simple  sentence.  The  subject  is  Dogs.  The  entire  predi- 
cate is  b ite  strangers;  the  predicate-verb  is  bite,  which  is  limited  by  the  object 
strangers.  (Bite  what  ?  A  word  limits  or  modifies  another,  when  it  completes  or 
fixes  its  meaning.    A  modifying  word  or  expression  is  called  a  modifier.} 

Parsing. — Dogs  is  a  common  noun;  of  the  masculine  gender,   third  person, 

?lural  number;  and  in  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb  bite,  according  to  Rule  I. 
Ute  is  an  irregular  transitive  verb;  its  principal  parts  are  lite,  bit,  biting,  bitten; 
etc.,  as  above.  Strangers  is  a  com.  noun;  of  the  c.  g.,  3d  p.,  p.  n. ;  and  in  the  ob- 
jective case—because  it  is  the  object  of  the  verb  bite — according  to  Rule  IV. 

3.  Article  or  Adjective  added  to  the  Subject  or  the  Object. 

The  vessel  was  wrecked.*  John  found  a  knife.  Leaves 
cover  the  ground.  Sweet  music  rose.  The  young  lady  wrote 
a  good  composition.      Tall  and  beautiful  poplars  fringe  the  river. 

.    Analysis. — *  This  is  a  simple  sentence.     The  entire  subject  is  The  vessel;  the  subject- 
nomi native  is  vessel,  which  is  modified  by  the  article  Tlie.     Was  wrecked  is  the  predicate. 

Parsing. — The  is  the  definite  article ;  and  it  belongs  to  vessel,  according  to  Rule  X. 
(Parse  vessel  like  Dogs  above.)  Was  wrecked  is  a  regular  verb,  in  the  passive  voice  ;  prin- 
cipal parts,  wreck,  icrecked,  wrecking,  wrecked  ;  and  it  agrees  with  vessel,  in  the  third  person 
and  singular  number,  according  to  Rule  XI. 

Sweet  is  a  descriptive  adjective,  in  the  positive  degree;  positive  sweet,  comparative 
sweeter,  superlative  sweetest ;  and  it  belongs  to  music,  according  to  Rule  X. 

And  is  a  copulative  conjunction,  connecting  tall  and  beautiful,  according  to  Rule  XV. 


EXERCISES.  75 

4.   Adjective  or  Nominative  added  to  the  Predicate-Verb. 

Lead  is  heavy.*  Most  people  are  ambitious.  A  bad  com- 
panion is  dangerous.  The  wind  blew  cold.  Flies  are  insects.* 
The  rose  is  a  famous  flower.       It  was  you. 

Analysis. — *  This  is  a  simple  sentence.  Lead  is  the  subject  Is  heavy  is  the  predicate; 
is  is  the  predicate-verb,  and  it  is  limited,  or  has  its  construction  completed,  by  the  adjec- 
tive heavy.  Or  say.  Is  is  the  predicate-verb,  and  it  is  limited  by  heavy,  an  attribute  of  the 
subject.   'See  p.  116.     (Analyze  are  insects  in  like  manner.) 

Parsing. — (Parse  Lead  like  Soldiers.)  Is  is  an  irregular  intransitive  verb;  its  principal 
parts  are  be  or  am,  was,  being,  been;  and  it  agrees  with  its  subject  Lead,  in  the  3d  p.  and 
6.  n.,  according  to  Rule  XI.  Heavy  is  a  descriptive  adjective,  in  the  positive  degree ;  (com- 
pare it;)  and  it  belongs  to  Lead,  according  to  Rule  X. 

(Parse  Flies  and  are  like  Lead  and  is  above.)  Bisects  is  a  common  noun  ;  of  the  c.  g., 
3d  p.,  p.  n. ;  and  la  the  nominative  case,  to  agree  with  Flies,  according  to  Rule  VII. 

5.  Adverb  added  to  the  Predicate- Verb. 

John  comes  frequently.*  Good  pupils  study  diligently. 
The  procession  moved  slowly.  The  eagle  flew  round  and  up- 
wards.      Flowers  are  peeping  out  everywhere.       I  was  there. 

Analysis.—*  This  is  a  simple  sentence.  The  subject  is  John.  The  entire  predicate  Is 
comes  frequently ;  comes  is  the  predicate-verb,  and  it  is  modified  by  the  adverb  frequently. 

Pausing.— Frequently  is  an  adverb  of  time:  and  it  belongs  to  comes,  according  to 
Kule  XIII. 

6.  Adjunct  added  to  the  Predicate-Verb. 

The  mountain  is  clothed  with  evergreens.*  The  wind  glided 
over  the  grass.  Our  troubles  are  aggravated  by  imaginary  evils. 
My  cousin  went  to  your  house,  at  noon,  in  a  carriage. 

Analysis. — *This  is  a  simple  sentence.  The  entire  subject  is  The  mountain , 'the  subject- 
nominative  is  mountain,  which  is  limited  by  the  article  The.  Is  clothed  with  evergreens  is 
the  entire  predicate;  is  clothed  is  the  predicate-verb,  which  is  modified  by  the  adjunct  with 
evergreens. 

Pausing.—  With  is  a  preposition,  showing  the  relation  between  is  clothed  and  evergreens, 
according  to  Rule  XIV.  Evergreens  is  a  common  noun  ;  of  the  n.  g.,  3d  p.,  p.  n.;  aud  in  the 
objective  case— it  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  with— according  to  Rule  V. 

7.  Adjunct  added  to  the  Subject  or  the  Object. 

A  wreath  of  rose-buds  encircled  her  head.*  She  brought  a 
basket  of  fruit.  The  old  oak  is  loaded  with  a  flock  of  singing 
blackbirds.       The  path  through  the  woods  is  cool  and  pleasant. 

A  nalysi!*.—  *  This  is  a  simple  sentence.  The  entire  subject  is  A  wreath  of  rose-buds  ;  the 
Bubject-nomhiativc  is  icreath,  which  is  limited  by  the  article  A  and  the  adjunct  of  rose- 
buds. Encircled  her  head  is  the  entire  predicate  ;  encircled  is  the  predicate-verb,  which  is 
limited  by  the  object  head,  and  head  is  limited  by  the  possessive  her. 

Pakrynu. — Of  is  a  preposition  ;  showing  the  relation  between  wreath  and  rose-buds,  ac- 
cording to  Rule  XIV.  Rose-buds  is  a  c.  n. ;  of  the  n.  g.,  iid  p.,  p.  n. ;  aud  in  the  objective 
case— it  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  of — according  to  Rule  V. 

8.  Possessive  or  Appositive  added  to  the  Subject  or  the  Object.    I 

My  hat  is  new.*  Mary's  eyes  are  blue.  Our  neighbor's  bees 
left  their  hive.  Rogers  the  poet  was  a  banker.f  Lake  Erie  is  a 
beautiful  sheet  of  water.      We  visited  Rome,  the  capital  of  Italy. 

Analysis.—*  This  is  a  simple  sentence.  The  entire  subject  is  My  hat;  the  subject-nomi- 
native is  hat,  which  ?s  rodified  by  the  possessive  My.    (Analyze  is  new  like  is  heavy  above.) 

t  Thin  is  a  rimple  sentence.  The  entire  subject  is  Rogers  the  poet;  the  subject-nomi- 
native is  Rogers,  nhich  is  limited  by  the  appositive  poet,  and  poet  is  modified  by  the  article  the. 

Pakkincj.  —  My  is  a  personal  pronoun;  of  the  common  gender,  first  person,  singular  num- 
ber ;  and  in  t'.ie  possessive  cise,  limiting  hat,  according  to  Rule  III.  Poet  is  a  c.  n. ;  of  the 
m.  g.,  Sd  p.,  s.  a  ;  and  iu  the  nominative  case,  tc  agree  with  Rogers,  according  to  Rule  VII. 


1Q  PARSING. 

11.  PARSING. 

General  Formula. — The  part  of  speech,  and  why ;  the  kind,  and  why; 
the  properties,  and  why ;  the  relation  to  other  words,  and  according  to 
what  Rule. 

Articles. 

Formula.— An  article,  and  why ;  ir^l^ite  [  and  why ;  to  what  it  belongs, 
and  according  to  what  Rule. 

"  The  river." 

"  The"  is  an  article, — a  word  placed  before  a  noun  to  show  how  it  is  applied  : 
definite,  it  shows  that  some  particular  river  is  meant ;  and  it  belongs  to  "  river," 
according  to  Rule  X  :  "  An  article  belongs  to  the  noun  to  which  it  relates.1''* 

Abridged. — The  is  the  definite  article;  and  it  belongs  to  river,  etc. 

"River"  is  a  noun,  it  is  a  name;  common,  it  is  a  name  that  can  be  applied 
to  every  object  of  the  same  kind  ;  neuter  gender,  it  denotes  neither  a  male  nor  a 
female;  third  person,  it  represents  an  object  as  spoken  of;  singular  number,  it 
means  but  one. 

Analysis. —  Tlie  river  is  a  phrase.  The  principal  word  is  river,  modified  by  the  article 
The.  (All  the  following  exercises  may  be  first  analyzed,  and  then  parsed,  if  the  teacher 
deems  it  best  to  do  so.) 

In  like  manner  parse  the  following  phrases  : — 

The  man.        The  men.  A  rose.  An  arrow. 

The  horse.       The  horses.        A  melon.  An  island. 

The  child.       The  children.     A  uuiversity.     An  uncle. 

"  A  man's  hat/' 

"  A  "  is  an  article, — a  word  placed  before  a  noun  to  show  how  it  is  applied  • 
indefinite,  it  shows  that  no  particular  man  is  meant ;  and  it  belongs  to  "mart's, 
according  to  Kule  X.    (Repeat  it.) 

Abridged. — A  is  the  indefinite  article ;  and  it  belongs  to  man's,  etc. 

"  Ma  n '  *  "  is  a  noun,  it  is  a  name ;  common,  it  is  a  name  common  to  all  objects 
of  the  same  kind  ;  masculine  gender,  it  denotes  a  male ;  third  person,  it  represents 
an  object  as  spoken  of;  singular  number,  it  means  but  one  ;  and  in  the  possessive 
ease,  it  limits  the  meaning  of"  hat,"  according  to  Eule  III.    (Repeat  it.) 

"  Hat"  is  parsed  like  "  river." 

Abridged. — Man's  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  masculine  gender,  third  person, 
singular  number  ;  and  in  the  possessive  ease,  governed  by  hat,  according  to,  etc. 
Analysis. — A  man's  hat  is  a  phrase.    The  principal  word  is  hat,  modified  by  man's, 
showing  what  hat ;  and  man's  is  modified  by  A,  showing  that  no  particular  man  is  meant. 

In  like  manner  parse  the  following  phrases : — 

A  neighbor's  farm.  The  boy's  book. 

An  Indian's  hatchet.  The  boys'  books. 

The  sun's  splendor.  Women's  fancies. 

Adjectives. 

Formula. — An  adjective,  and  why  ;  J^y™6'  [  an<*  why ;  whether  com- 
pared or  not,  and  how ;  the  degree,  and  why ;  to  what  it  belongs,  and  according 
to  what  Rule. 

*  It  is  not  necessary,  in  parsing,  to  repeat  more  of  a  Eule  than  the  example  requires. 


PARSING.  77 

"  A  beautiful  morning,  with  a  refreshing  "breeze." 

"  Beautify  V  is  an  adjective, — a  word  used  to  qualify  or  limit  the  meaning 
of  a  noun  ;  descriptive,  it  describes  or  qualifies  the  morning  ;  compared  pos.  beauti- 
ful, comp.  more  beautiful,  superl.  most  beautiful ;  in  the  positive  degree,  it  expresses 
the  quality  simply  ;  and  it  belongs  to  "  morning,'"  according  to  Rule  X.    (Repeat  it.) 

Abridged. — Beautiful  is  a  descriptive  adjective,  in  the  positive  degree  (pos. 
beautiful,  comp.  more  beautiful,  superl.  most  beautiful) ;  and  it  belongs  to  morning. 

"  Refreshing"  is  an  adjective, — a  word,  etc.  *  *  *  participial,  it 
ascribes  the  act  to  its  subject  as  a  quality  ;  and  it  belongs  to  "  breeze,"  according 
to  Kule  X.    (Repeat  it.) 

Abridged. — Refreshing  is  a  participial  adjective,  from  the  verb  refresh ;  and  it 
belongs  to  breeze,  according  to  Rule  X.     (Repeat  it.) 

Analysis. — A  beautiful  morning,  with  a  refreshing  breeze,  is  a  phrase.  (Give  defini- 
tion.) The  principal  word  is  morning,  which  is  modified  by  the  article  A,  the  adjective 
beautiful,  and  the  adjunct  with  a  refreshing  breeze.  Breeze  is  modified  by  the  article  a, 
the  adjective  refreshing,  and  joined  to  morning  by  the  preposition  with. 

Descriptive  Adjectives. 

Aa  ripe  melon.     A  whiter  rose.        The  fairest  lady. 

A  dark  night.      Purling  streams.    The  black-winged  redbird. 

An  early  riser.      Ground  corn.  The  red- winged  blackbird. 

Delightful  scenery.  The  best  gift. 

Flowery  meadows.  A  most0  ingenious  story. 

Mahogany0  furniture.  The  least0  troublesome  servant. 

A  more0  beautiful  day.  Webster's  most0  eloquent  speech. 

John's  bay  horse.  The  obedient,  cheerful,  and  in- 

The  worst  condition.  dustrious  pupil. 

A  good  boy's-  mother.  A  man  bold,  sensible,  sensitive, 

A  large,  threatening  cloud.       proud,  and°  ambitious. 

"  All  men."         "  Five  dollars." 

Formula. — An  adjective,  and  why;  the  kind,  and  why;  to  what  it  belongs, 
and  according  to  what  Rule. 

"All "  is  an  adjective,— a  -word  used  to  qualify  or  limit  the  meaning  of  a  noun . 
definitive,  it  limits  or  modifies  the  meaning  of  "  men,  ;"  and  it  belongs  to  "  men," 
according  to  Rule  X.     (Repeat  it.) 

Abridged. — All  is  a  definitive  adjective,  and  belongs  to  men,  according  to,  etc. 

"Five"  is  an  adjective, — a  word,  etc.  *  *  *  numeral,  and  of  the  cardi- 
nal kind,  because  it  expresses  number  and  shows  how  many  ;  and  it  belongs  to 
"  dollars,"  according  to  Rule  X.     (Repeat  it.) 

Abridged.— Five  is  a  numeral  adjective,  of  the  cardinal  kind,  and  belongs  to 
dollars,  according  to  Rule  X. 

Definitive  Adjectives. 

Yonder  house.         These  trees.  Every  fourth  man. 

This  tree.  Each  pupil.  Those  two  benches. 

That  barn.  Such  a  person.         The  lawyer's  own  case 

Twelve  Spartan  virgins,  noble,  young,  and0  fair, 

With0  violet  wreaths  adorned0  their0  flowing  hair. — Dryden. 

(a.)  "yl"  shows  that  no  particular  "  ripe  melon"  is  meant,  (o.)  To  be  omitted  in  parsing. 
(b.)  Say,  in  stead  of  comparison,  "  It  can  not  be  compared  with  propriety." 

4* 


78  PARSING. 

Nouns. 

Formula. — A  noun,  and  why;  *LJ!Z\n  f  an(l  "why;  collective,  and  why; 
gender,  aud  why ;  person,  and  why ;  number,  and  why ;  case,  and  Rule. 

"  Snow  is  falling." 

"(S'aow)"  is  a  noun,  it  is  a  name  ;  common,  it  is  the  common  namo  of  a  sub- 
stance; neater  gender,  it  denotes  neither  male  nor  female;  third  person,  it  repre- 
sents an  object  as  spoken  of;  singular  number,  it  means  but  one  ;  and  in  the  nom- 
inative case — it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  is  falling — according  to  Rule  I.  (Repeat  it.) 

Abridged*. — Snow  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  neuter  gender,  third  person,  singu- 
lar number  ;  and  in  the  nominative  case  to  is  falling,  according  to  Rule  I. 

Analysis. — Snow  is  falling,  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  Snow  is  the  subject,  and 
is  falling  is  the  predicate. 

Parse  the  articles,  the  adjectives,  and  the  nouns : — 

David  slew  Goliatlia.  Jonese  the  saddler'sf  wife. 

Cattle  eat  grass.  TheDukeof  Wellington's* forces. 

Cats  catch  mice.  Mr.  Smith  taught  Idaa  musica. 

In  golden  ringletsb.  Give  Johnh  the  book. 

With  Sarah's  pen.  James  the  coachman'  is  sick. 

Edward  Everett's0  orations.  George  is  a  gentleman1. 

Allen'sd  and  Brown's  store.  Bancroft  the  historian  was  made 
Allen  and  Brown's  store.  chairman  J. 

Alicek,  bring  your  books,  slate,  and  paper. 

The  boy1 — 0  !  where  was  he  ? 

My  mother111  being  sick,  I  remained  at  home. 

To  become"  a  scholar111  requires  mind  and  labor. 

The  canal  is  4  feet°  deep,  and  36  feet  wide. 

To  advance11  was  now  utterly  impossible. 

Thou  shalt  not  stealp,  is  the  eighth  commandment. 

Sweet  clime  of  my  kindred,  blest  land  of  my  birth  | 
The  fairestr,  the  brightest,  the  dearest  on  earth  ! 

C/r.">  "  Goliath'1''  is  a  nonn,  it  is  a  name  ;  proper,  it  is  the  name  of  a  particular  person,  to 
distinguish  liim  from  other  persons,  etc.  ***  and  in  the  objective  case — it  is  the  object  of 
the  verb  "slew'* — according  to  Kale  IV.  (&.)  "  Itinglets""  is  a  noun,  etc.  *  *  *  and  in  the  objec- 
tive casj — it  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  In — according  to  Rule  V.  (c.)  "Edward 
Everett's"  is  a  prober  noun,  (d.) — and  in  the  possessive  case — it  limits  the  meaning  of  store, 
understood — according  to  Rule  III.  (e  ) — and  in  the  possessive  case — it  limits  the  meaning 
of  "  tcife"  by  showing  whose  wife  she  is — according  to  Rule  III.  (/)— and  in  the  possessive 
case- -to  agree  with  '■'Jones'" — according  to  Rule  VII.  (g.) — and  in  the  objective  case — it  is 
the  object  of  the  preposition  "o/"'— according  to  Rule  V.  (h. )— and  in  the  obj.  dive  case- 
it  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  to,  understood— according  to  Rnle.  V.  (i.) — and  in  the 
nominative  case — to  agree  with  James — according  to  Rule  VII.  (?.) — and  in  the  nomina- 
live  case — to  agree  w\Xh  "•Bancroft"' — aecordingto  Rnle  VII.  (fc) — and  in  the '.nominative  case 
independent,  by  direct  address,  according  to  Rule  II.  (I.)  Rule  II.  (m.) — and  in  the  nom- 
inative case  absolute,  according  to  Rule  II.  (71.)  "To  become"1  is  an  infinitive,  used  here  as  a 
noun  of  the  neuter  gender.  3d  person,  singular  number,  and  nominative  case  to  "  requires"  ac- 
cording to  Rule  I.  (o.)— and  in  the  objective  case,  limiting  "deep"  according  to  Rule  VI. 
{p.)  Thou  shalt  not  steal,  is  a  clause,  used  here  as  a  noon  of  the  neuter  gender,  3d  p.,  s.  n.  ; 
and  in  the  nominative  case  to  is,  according  to  Rule  I.    Parse  each  word,    (r.)  Supply  land,. 

*  Parsing  is  usually  abridged,  hy  simply  omitting  the  reasons. 


TAKSIXG.  79 

P  r  o  ii  o  wit  s  , 

personal,         ) 
Formula. — A  pronoun, — definition;  relative,  >and  why;  gender,  and 

interrogative,  ) 
why;  person,  and  why;   number,  and  why;  case,  and  Rule. 

"  I  myself  saw  John. and  his  brother." 

"/"  is  a  pronoun, — a  word  that  supplies  the  place  of  a  noun ;  personal,  it  is  ono 
of  the  pronouns  that  serve  to  distinguish  the  three  grammatical  persons;  of  the 
common  gender,  it  may  denote  either  a  male  or  a  female  ,  first  person,  it  denotes  the 
speaker ;  singular  number,  it  mean?  but  one  ;  and  in  the  nominative  case — it  is  the 
subject  of  the  verb  "  *aai" — according  to  Rule  I.  Nom.,  /;  poss.,  my  or  mine,  etc. 

Abridged. — /is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  common  gender,  first  person,  singu- 
lar number  ;  and  in  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb  saw,  according  to  Rule  I. 

"Myself"  is  a  pronoun, — a  word  that  supplies  the  place  of  a  noun;  compound, 
it  is  compounded  of  my  and  self;  personal,  etc.  *  *  *  and.  in  the  nominative  case,  to 
agree  with  "  I,"  according  to  Rule  VII. 

Abridged. — Myself  is  a  compound  personal  pronoun,  of  the  common  gender,  etc. 

"  His"  is  a  pronoun, — a  word  that  supplies  the  place  of  a  noun;  personal,  it  is 
one  of  the  pronouns  that  serve  to  distinguish  the  three  grammatical  persons ;  of 
the  masculine  gender,  third  person,  and  singular  number,  to  agree  with  "  John," 
according  to  Rule  IX;  (repeat  it;)  and  in  the  possessive  case,  it  limits  the  meaning 
of  "brother,"  according  to  Rule  III.     (Repeat  it.) 

Abridged. — His  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  masculine  gender,  3d  pers.,  s.  n., 
to  agree  with  John,  according  to  Rule  IX;  (repeat  it;)  and  in  the  possessive  case, 
governed  by  brother,  according  to  Rule  IIL 

Awaltsis.— This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  The  entire  subject  is  /  myself;  l'\% 
the  subject-nominative,  which  is  modified  by  the  emphatic  appositive  myself.  Saw  John 
and  Ms  brother,  la  the  entire  predicate  ;  saw'is  the  predicate-verb,  which  is  modified  by  tha 
objects  John  and  brother,  which  are  connected  by  and,  and  the  latter  of  which  is  modified 
by  his.    (For  Analysis,  henceforth,  see  pp.  108-11.) 

Parse  the  articles,  Vie  adjectives,  the  nouns,  and  the  pronouns : — 

Personal  Pronouns. 

We  caught  him.*  Art  thou1  the  man7? 

Albert  dressed  himself944.  Martha  and  Mary  have  recited 

With  mes.  9their3  lessons. 

Among  themselves.  A  dutiful  son  is  the  delight7  of 

Thou2  majestic  Ocean7.  his  parents. 

Ye  golden  clouds.  John,  3you*  are  wanted. 

*  In  these  and  all  future  parsing  lessons,  a  number  placed  overii  word,  indicates  thoKul* 
Vo  be  applied  to  it;  and  a  caret  (A  )  shows  where  words  are  to  be  supplied. 

"Read  thy  doom  in  the  flowers,  which,  fade  and  die." 

"Which"  is  a,  pronoun, — a  word  that  supplies  the  place  of  a  noun  ;  relative, 
Its  clause  relates  to  and  describes  a  preceding  word,  and  is  dependent ;  of  the 
neuter  gender,  third  person,  and  plural  number,  to  agree  with  u  flowers,"  according 
to  Rule  IX  ;  (repeat  it;)  and  in  the  nominative  case — it  is  the  subject  of  the  verbs 
"fade"  and  "  die" — according  to  Rule  I. 

Abridged. —  Which  is  a  relative  pronoun,  of  the  neuter  gender,  third  person, 
aDd  plural  number,  to  agree  with  flowers,  according  to  Rule  IX;  and  in  the  nom- 
inative case  to  the  verbs  fade  and  die,  according  to  Rule  I. 

u  James  reads  what  pleases  him." 

"What"  is  a  pronoun — a  word  that  supplies  the  place  of  a  noun*  relative,  it 
makes  its  clause  dependent  on  another;  of  the  neuter  gender,  it  denotes  neither  ft 
male  nor  a  female  ^  third  person,,  it  represents  an  object  as  spoken  of ;  singular  num- 


80  PARSING. 

her,  it  means  but  one  ;  and  it  is  here  used  as  the  object  of  "  reads"  and  the  subject 
of  "pleases" — because  it  takes  the  place  of  that  which  or  thing  which, — according  to 
Eule  VIII :  "  The  relative  what  may  svpply  hvo  cases." 

Abridged. —  What  is  a  relative  pronoun,  of  the  neuter  gender,  third  person, 
singular  number ;  and  it  is  here  used  as  the  object  of  reads,  etc. 

"Nature  deigns  to  bless  whatever  man  will  use  her  gifts  aright." 

"  Wh  a  te  ve  r  "  is  an  adjective, — a  word  that  qualifies  or  limits  the  meaning  of  a 
substantive;  definitive,  it  limits  or  modifies  the  meaning  of  "man,"  and  it  belongs 
to  ' '  man,"  according  to  Rule  X. 

"Man"  is  a  noun,  it  is  a  name ;  common,  it  is  a  generic  name,  etc.  *  *  *  and 
it  is  used  here  as  the  object  of  "  to  ite"  and  the  subject  of  "  will  -use," — because 
the  phrase  whatever  man,  takes  the  place  of  any  or  every  man  that,—  according  to 
Eule  VIII. 

Abridged. — Man  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  m.g.,  3d  p.,  s.  n.,  and  is  here  used 
as  the  object,  etc. 

"  I  do  not  know  what  he  is  doing." 

"  What  he  is  doing,"  is  «\  clause  used  in  the  sense  of  a  noun,  of  the  neuter 
gender,  third  person,  singular  number ;  and  in  the  objective  case — it  is  the  object 
of  "  do  know" — according  to  Rule  IV. 

"  What"  is  &  pronoun, — a  word  that  supplies  the  place  of  a  noun  ;  relative,  it 
makes  its  clause  dependent  on  another ;  of  the  neuter  gender,  it  denotes  neither  a 
male  nor  a  female;  third  person,  it  represents  an  object  as  spoken  of;  singvlar 
number,  it  means  but  one  ;  and  in  the  objective  case — it  is  the  object  of  the  verb  is 
doing — according  to  Rale  IV. 

Abridged. —  What  is  a  responsive  relative  pronoun,  of  the  n.  g.,  3d  p.,  s.  n.; 
and  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  is  doing,  according  to  Rule  IV. 

Belative  Pronouns.  • 

I  saw  your  brother4,  who941  It  was  I7  9thatlb  went. 

was  well.  What8  costs  nothing,  is  worth10 
She  9who1   studies  her3   glass,  nothing6. 

neglects  her  heart.  Take  whatever8  you  like. 

He   was   such   a   talker    9asla  We  shall  leave  what  is  useless. 

could  delight  us  all10.  I  am  his3  <Jwholc  created  me. 

(a.) — "was  such  a  talker  as"=wa3  a  talker  that,  or  who—,  (b.)  Tliat^whc  ;  hence  a 
relative  pronoun,  (c.)  That  is, — "his  property,  who  created  mo;"  or,  "the  property  of 
him  who"  etc 

"  Whom  did  you  see  ?" 

_  "  Whom"  is  a  pronoun, — a  word  that  takes  the  place  of  a  noun  ;  interrogative, 
it  is  used  to  ask  a  question  ;  of  the  common,  gender,  it  may  denote  either  a  male  or 
a  female;  third  person,  it  represents  an  object  as  spoken  of ;  singular  number,  it 
means  but  one ;  and  in  the  objective  case — it  is  the  object  of  the  verb  u  did  see"—* 
according  to  Rule  IV. 

Abridged. —  Whom  is  an  interrogative  pronoun,  of  the  common  gender,  third 
person,  singular  number ;  and  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  did'  see,  etc 

"The  Gaul  offered  his  own  head  to  whoever  should  brine  him 
that  of  Herb."  "  The  old  bird  feeds  her  young  ones."  "  These 
horses  I  received  for  the  others." 

"Whoever"  is  a  pronoun, — a  word  that  supplies  the  place  of  a  noun  ;  com-' 
pound  it  is  compounded  of  who  and  ever  ;  relative  it  makes  its  clause  dependent  on 
another;  of  the  common  gender,  third  person,  singular  number,  to  agree  with  "per- 
son," or  "  any  person," — understood  before  it, — according  to  Rule  IX;  and  in  the 
nominative  case — it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  "  should  give" — according  to  Rule  I. 

Abridged. —  Wlwever  is  a  compound  relative  pron.,  of  the  c,  g.,  3d  p.,  s.  n.,  etc 


PARSING. 


81 


"  That"  is  a  pronoun, — a  word  that  supplies  the  place  of  a  noun;  it  is  hero 
used  in  place  of  u  the  head,'''1  and  is  therefore  of  the  neater  gender,  third  person, 
singular  number  ;  and  in  the  objective  case — being  the  object  of  the  verb  "tktrula 
bring" — according  to  Rule  IV.     ("  Ones1''  and  "  others"  arc  parsed  in  a  similar  way.) 

Abridged. — TJiat  is  a  demonstrative  pronoun,  used  here  m  place  of  the  phrase 
the  head,  and  is  therefore  of  the  n.  g.,  3d  p.,  s.  n. ;  and  in  the  objective  case,  gov- 
erned by  should  bring,  etc. 

Interrogative  Pronouns. 

•Who7  was  Blennerhasset1  \  Who1  can  tell  what7  democ- 

bWhoI  is  my  neighbor7  %  racy1  is  \ 

Miscellaneous  Emmples. 
Your  horse  trots  well,  but  mine0  paces.       Others  may  be  more 
intelligent,  but  none1  are  more  amiable, than  she  is.       Whoever8 
gives  to  the  poor,  lends  to  the  Lord.       From  their  abhorrence  of 
each  other*1. 

I  hopee  what8 1  say  will  have  an  effect  upon  him,  and  prevent 
the  impression  which  what8  he  says  may  have  upon  others. 
Hereditary  bondsmen  !  know  ye  not, 
Who  would  be  free,  themselves7  must  strike  the  blow  ? 

(a.)  "Who  was  Blennerhasset ?,,=Blcnnerhasset  was  who?  (?>.).  To  apply  Rule  VII  to 
"tfJw,  would  stive  a  different  meaning  to  the  sentence.  (/'.)  Say,  "Mine"  is  here  used  for 
"  my  horse."  My  is  a  pronoun,  etc.  (Parse  the  two  words  as  usual.)  (d.)  "  Mich  other"''  is 
a  pronoun, — a  word  that  supplies  the  place  of  a  noun  ;  compound,  it  consists  of  two  words  ; 
of  the  corn,  gen.,  etc.    (e.)  "-Hope"1  has  the  entire  member  after  it  as  its  ohject.    (Hope  what ''.) 

Verbs, 

Finite    Verbs. 

Formula. — A   verb,    and   why ;    principal  parts ;    ™^Quiar  f  and  why  * 
transitivi,  with  voice,     )  and      ,        tho         ^  and  wh      the  fc        and      h 
tntranntive,  or  neuter,  )  "  J '  • ' 

with  form  (empliatic  or  progressive),  and  why;  the  person  and  number,  to  agree 
with  its  subject  ,  according  to  Rule  XI. 

"  My  father  is  ploughing  the  field  which  was  bought  last  year." 

"  la  ploughing"  is  a  verb, — a  word  used  to  affirm  something  of  a  subject ; 
principal  parts,— pres.  plough,  past  ploughed,  pert",  part,  ploughed  ;  regular,  it  as- 
sumes tlie  ending  ed  ;  transitive,  it  lias  an  object  (field), — and  in  the  active  voice, 
because  it  represents  its  subject  as  acting  ;  indicative  mood,  it  affirms  something  as 
an  actual  occurrence  or  fact  ;  present  tense,  it  expresses  the  act  in  present  time, — 
and  progressive  form,  it  represents  it  as  continuing ;  third  person  and  singular 
number,— to  agree  with  its  Bubjeet/a^e/', — according  to  Rule  XI.     (Repeat  it.) 

Abridged. — Is  ploughing  is  a  regular  transitive  verb,  from  the  verb  plough} 
(principal  parts, — pres.  plough,  past  ploughed,  perf.  part,  ploughed  ;)  in  the  indica- 
tive mood,  present  tense,  progressive  form;  and  in  the  third  person  and  singular 
number,  to  agree  with  its  subject  father,  according  to  Rule  XI.  First  person,  I 
am  ploughing  ;  second  person,  You  are  ploughing,  etc. 

"Was  bought"  is  a  verb, — a  word  used  to  affirm  something  of  a  subject; 
principal  parts, — pres.  buy,  past  bought,  perf.  part,  bought;  irregular,  it  does  not 
assume  the  ending  ed ;  transitive,  but  in  the  passive  voice,  because  it  affirms  the 
aco  of  the  object  acted  upon  ;  indicative  mood,  it  asserts  something  as  an  actual 
occurrence  or  fact ;  past  tense,  it  refers  the  act  simply  to  past  time  ;  third  person 
and  singular  number, — to  agree  with  its  subject  which, — according  to  Rule  XI. 

Abridged. —  Was  bought  is  an  ir.  pass,  verb,  from  the  verb  buy  ;  (principal 
parts, — pres.  buy,  past  bought,  perf.  part,  bought ;  in  the  ind.  m-,  past  t.,  and  c.  f. ; 
and  in  the  3d  p.,  s.  n.,  to  agree,  etc. 


82 


PARSING. 


Parse  the  articles,  adjectives,  nouns,  pronouns,  and  verbs  : — 


Regular   Verbs. 
Columbus  discovered  America. 
John  regretted  his  loss. 
Fortune  worries  men. 

Irregular  Verbs. 
They  struck  me. 
Birds  fly.     It  was  I7. 
Joseph  has  lost  his  hat. 

Transitive  Verbs. 
Horses  eat  corn. 
The  Indians  shunned  us. 
We  armed  ourselves. 

Voices. 
She  broke  the  pitcher. 
The  pitcher  is  broken. 
They  named  her4  MaryT. 
She  was  named  Mary7. 

Intransitive  Verbs. 
Bright  leaves  quivered. 
Eivers  flow,  and  winds  blow. 
John  will  become  rich. 
Horace  struts  a  dandy7 

fieuter  Vcrhs. 
The  rose  is  beautiful. 
Fierce  was  the  conflict. 
The  house  stands  firm10. 

Moods. 
Robert  sold  his  horse. 
Were  he  rich,  he  would  be  lazy. 
Can  you  spell  "phthisic"  f 
Be  sincere.     (Be  thou  sincere.) 
Man  is  made  to  mourn. 


Tenses. 
The  distant  hills  look  blue. 
Have  you  been  sick  ? 
The  soldiers  will  be  attacked. 
Your  coat  will  have  been  finished. 
You  must  write  a  composition. 
We  should  love  our  neighbors. 
Did  you  go  ? 

The  apples  might  have  been  eaten. 
The  lady  may  have  been  handsome. 
Had  I  but  known  it. 
Do  you  venture  a  small  fish,  to 
catch  a  great  one. 

Forms. 

The  tall  pines  are  rustling. 

I  do  protest  against  it. 

Thou  hast  a  heart  of  adamant. 

Persons  and  Numbers. 
Reckless  youth  makes  rueful  age. 
ITow  are  the  mighty a  fallen! 
The  Rhine  and  the  Rhone  riseb  m 

Switzerland. 
Monday  or  Tuesday  was6  the  day. 
Yonder  livesu  a  hero  and  patriot. 
His  family  ise  large. 
The  multitude  pursuef  pleasure. 
Every  house  has  a  garden. 
You?  or  he  is  in  fault. 
You,  he,  and  I,  are  invited*1. 
I  say,  be  your  own  friend. 
To  scorn  meanness,  is  heroic. 
That    weak    men    should    seek 

strength  in  cunning,  is  natural. 


(a.)  Supply  men,  or  parse  mighty  as  a  noun.  (b.)  Say,—"  and  in  the  third  person,  plural 
number,  to  agree  with  '  Rhine  and  Rhone — a  plural  subject,  because  it  consists  of  two  nomi- 
natives joined  by  and — according  to  Rule  XI."  See  p.  42.  (6-.)— and  in  the  third  person, 
singular  number,  to  agree  with  '■'Monday  or  Tuesday" — a  singular  subject,  because  it  con- 
sists of  two  singular  nominatives  joined  by  or — according  to  Rule  XI.  (d.) — and  in  the  3d 
p.,  s.  n.,  to  agree  with  "  hero  and  patriot"" — a  singular  subject,  because  the  two  words  denote 
but  one  person — according  to  Rule  XI.  (e.) — and  in  the  3d  p.,  s.  n.,  to  agree  with  its  subject 
family — a  collective  noun  that  expresses  the  idea  of  unity,  or  presents  all  the  objects  as  one 
thing — according  to  Rule  XI.  (/.) — and  in  the  3d  p.,  p.  n.,  to  agree  with  its  subject  multi- 
tude, a  collective  noun  that  is  plural  in  idea — according  to  Rule  XL  (g.) — and  in  the  nomi- 
native case  to  are,  understood,  according  to  Rule  I.  (h.) — and  in  the  1st  p.,  p.  n.,  to  agree 
with  its  subject  "  You,  he,  and  2,"  equivalent  to  We,  according  to  Rule  XI. 


Participles    and    Infinitives 

transitive,  -with  xoice, 


Fo™».a.-i/^&: 


-d-"y;  S£=Uor^  \  ■»*  **y; 


-perfect, 


and  why  ;  with,  form,  and  why  ;  to  what  it  relates,  and  according  to 
what  Kule. 


In  parsing  a  present  participle,  omit  form  ;  and  in  general  omit  of  the  Formulas 
whatever  is  not  applicable. 


PARSING.  83 

"  The  traveler,  having  been  robbed,  was  obliged  to  sell  his  horse." 

11  Ha  ving  been  robbed"  is  a  participle, — a  form  of  the  verb,  that  merely 
assumes  the  act  or  state,  and  is  generally  construed  like  an  adjective  ;  compound. 
it  consists  of  three  simple  participles  ;  passive,  it  represents  its  subject  as  acted 
upon  ;  perfect  in  sense,  it  expresses  the  act  or  state  as  past  and  finished  at  the  time 
referred  to ;  and  it  relates  to  "  traveler"  according  to  Eule  XII.    (Bepeat  it.) 

Abridged. — Having  been  robbed  is  a  compound,  passive,  perfect  participle,  from 
the  verb  rob,  robbed,  robbed;  and  it  relates  to  traveler,  according  to  Kule  XII. 

"  To  s  ell "  is  an  infinitive, — a  form  of  the  verb,  that  begins  generally  with  to, 
and  expresses  no  affirmation  ;  transitive,  it  has  an  object ;  active  voice,  it  repre- 
sents its  subject  as  doing  something  ;  present,  it  denotes  the  act  simply  ;  and  it  re- 
lates to  "  traveler"  and  completes  the  sense  of  "  was  obliged,"  according  to  Eule  XII. 

Abridged. — To  sell  is  a  transitive,  active,  present  infinitive,  from  the  verb  sell, 
sold,  selling,  sold ;  and  it  relates  to  traveler  as  its  subject,  and  limits  was  obliged, 
showing  as  to  what,  according  to  Kule  XII. 

"  To  betray  is  base."      u  I  insist  on  writing  the  letter." 

u  To  betray"  is  an  intransitive,  active,  present  infinitive,  from  the  verb  betray, 
defrayed,  betraying,  betrayed.  It  is  here  used  also  as  a  noun  of  the  neuter  gender, 
third  person,  singular  number  ;  and  in  the  nominative  case — being  the  subject  of 
the  verb  is — according  to  Rule  I. 

"  Writing"  is  a  transitive,  active,  present  participle,  from  the  verb  write, 
wrote,  written.  It  is  here  used  also  as  a  noun  of  the  neuter  aender,  third  person, 
singular  number ;  and  in  the  objective  case — being  the  object  oi  the  preposition  era 
—according  to  Eule  V. 

"  It  affords  us  pleasure  to  have  seen  the  rising  sun  attended  by 
so  many  beautiful  clouds." 

"To  have  seen"  is  &  transitive,  active,  perfect  infinitive,  from  the  verb  see, 
saw,  seen.  It  is  here  used  also  as  a  noun  of  the  neuter  gender,  third  person,  singular 
number  ;  and  in  the  nominative  case,  to  agree  with  "  It,"  according  to  Eule  VII. 

"Rising"  is  an  adjective, — a  word  used  to  qualify  or  limit  the  meaning  of  a 
substantive  ;  participial,  it  is  a  participle — from  the  verb  rise,  rose,  risen — ascribing 
the  act  or  state  to  its  subject  as  a  quality  ;  and  it  belongs  to  "  sun"  according  to 
Eule  X. 

"Attended"  is  a  participle, — a  form  of  the  verb,  that  merely  assumes  the 
act  or  state,  and  is  generally  construed  like  an  adjective ;  passive,  it  represents  its 
subject  as  acted  upon  ;  perfect  in  form,  but  present  in  sense,  for  it  represents  the 
act  or  state  as  present  and  continuing  at  the  time  referred  to ;  and  it  relates  to 
"  sun,"  according  to  Eule  XII. 

Aerdged. — Attended  is  a  passive  participle,  from  the  regular  verb  attend,  at- 
tended, attended  ;  it  is  perfect  in  four,  but  present  in  sense,  and  relates  to,  etc. 

Jjgr'  The  second  Eule  for  participles  find  infinitives,  which  is  given  on  page  71, 
can  be  applied  to  all  the  foregoing  and  all  the  following  participles  and  infinitives. 

Parse  all  except  the  adverbs,  prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  interjections : — 
Participles. 

The  Indians  fled,  leaving  their  mules  tied  to  the  bushes. 
He  went  trudging3-  on  foot,  wearying  himself,  and  wasting  his 
time.  The  machinery,  being  oiled,  runs  well.  The  war2  being 
ended,  prosperity  revived.  Time  and  thinking  tame  the  strong- 
est grief.       Of  making  many  books,  there  is  no  end. 

Jnfinitives. 

And  fools,  who  came  to  scoff,b  remained  to  pray.  He  is 
anxious  to  go.c  We  are  never  too  old  to  learn.*1  The  right  of 
the  people  to  instruct8  their  representatives,  is  generally  admitted. 


84  PARSING. 

Here  was  an  opportunity  to  growf  rich.  I  ordered  him?  to  be 
brought.  She  is  wiser  than  to  believe1*  it.  The  weather  was 
such  as  to  render1  any  military  movement  difficult.  The  story 
was  considered  so  improbable  as  to  obtaink  no  credit.  I  ought 
to  have  written.  In  order  to  do1  this,10  it  was  necessary  to 
travel  one  hundred  and  twenty  miles. 

To  err1  is  human  ;  to  forgive,  divine.  I  forgot  to  tell4  him' 
the  story.  Delightful  task !  to  rear7  the  tender  thought.  To 
die,* — it  is  an  awful  thing.  It  is  knowledge  enough  for  some 
people,  to  know7  howm  far  they  can  proceed  in  mischief  with  im- 
punity. 

Miscellaneous  Examples. 
O  silvery  streamlet  of  the  fields,  that  flowest  full  and  free. 
Now  May,  with  life  and  music,  the  blooming  valley  fills. 
Let  Love  have11  eyes,  and  Beauty  will  have  ears. 
It  had  been0  useless,  had  he  done0  it. 
That  a  belle  should  be  vain,  is  not  to  be  wondered  at. 
Accordingly,  a  company  assembled11  armed13  and  accoutred15, 
and,  having  procured12  a  field-piece,  appointed11  Major  Harrison 
commander7,  and  proceeded11  to  accomplish12  their  design. 
The  sun  hath  set  in  folded  clouds, — 

Its  twilight  rays  are  gone ; 
And,  gathered  in  the  shades  of  night, 
The  storm  comes  rolling  on. 

(a.)  Trudging  nlso  modifies  went  adverbially.  See  remark  tinder  Rule  XTT.  (b.)  To 
8C0f  relates  to  fools  for  its  subject,  and  also  limits  came,  (c.)  To  go  relates  to  he  for  its  sub- 
ject, and  also  modifies  anxious,  (d.)  To  learn  relates  to  We  for  its  subject,  and  also  limits 
too  old.  (c.)  To  instruct  relates  to people  for  its  subject,  and  also  modifies  right.  (/.)  That 
is^ — "  an  opportunity  for  Mm  or  any  person  to  grow  ricb".  To  grow  relates  to  an  indefinite 
subject,  and  modifies  opportunity.  In  regard  to  rich,  see  Note  X.  (#.)  The  pbrase  him  to 
be  brought,  is  the  entire  (or  logical)  object  of  ordered  ;  him  is  the  grammatical  object.  To 
be  brought  relates  to  him  for  its  subject,  and  it  also  modifies  or  limits  ordered.  (h.~)  To  be- 
lieve relates  to  she  for  its  subject,  and  also  completes  the  construction  of  than.  Or  parse  to 
believe  as  a  verbal  noun,  the  subject  of  is  wise,  understood,  (i.)  To  render  relates  to  weather 
for  its  subject,  and  witb  its  modifications  completes  the  construction,  or  is  the  complement,  of 
the  correlative  pbrase  such  as.  Or  say,  if  greater  simplicity  is  desired,  "  To  render  relates 
to  weather  for  its  subject,  and  also  depends  on  the  correlative  phrase  such  as,  according  to 
Rule  XII."  (fc.)  To  obtain  relates  to  story  for  its  subject,  and  completes  the  construction,  or 
is  the  complement,  of  the  correlatives  so  and  as.  To  obtain  no  credit,  in  this  sentence,  could 
also  be  parsed,  though  somewhat  clumsily,  as  the  subject  of  might  be  considered  indicative  of 
its  improbability,  understood.  (I.)  To  do  relates  to  an  indefinite  subject,  and  completes  the 
construction  of  the  phrase  in  order.  In  order  serves,  in  reality,  only  to  strengthen  the  sense 
of  purpose  expressed  by  to  do  ;  and  if  so  parsed,  to  do  should  be  parsed  as  depending  on  the 
predicate  icas  necessary.  To  travel,  etc.,  is  a  phrase  explanatory  of  it;  Rule  VII.  One  hun- 
dred and  twenty  is  a  numeral  adjective,  (m.)  How  far  they  can  proceed,  etc.,  is  the  object 
of  to  knmo.  See  p.  SO.  (n.)  That  is,  "  Do  thou  let  Love  (to)  have,  etc.  Have  is  a  transitive, 
present  infinitive,  without  the  sign  to,  because  used  after  let.  It  relates  to  Love  for  its  sub- 
ject, and  dependa  on  Let,  according  to  Rule  XII.     (o.)  Subjunctive  mood.     See  p.  34. 

Adverbs. 

Formula. — An  adverb,  and  why ;  if  it  can  be  compared,  say  so,  and  how ; 
ofwJiai  kind;  to  what  it  belongs,  and  according  to  what  Kulc  or  Note. 

"  The  trees  are  waving  beautifully." 

"  B eaut  ifu  I ly  "  is  an  adverb,  it  modifies  the  meaning  of  a  verb  ("  are  wav* 


PARSING.  85 

ing") ;  it  can  be  compared, — pos.  beautifully,  ccmp.  more  beautifully,  superl.  most 
beautifully ;  it  is  an  adverb  oi  manner  or  quality;  and  it  belongs  to  the  verb  "'are 
waving"  according  to  Kule  X11I.     (Repeat  of  the  Rule  as  much  as  is  applicable.) 

Abridged. — Beautifully  is  an  adverb  of  manner,  can  be  compared,  modifies  the 
verb  are  waving,  and  belongs  to  it  according  to  Rule  XIII. 

"  Gather  roses  while  they  bloom." 

"  WJiil  e  "  is  an  adverb, — a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  an  ad- 
jective, or  an  adverb  ;  it  is  a  conjunctive  adverb  of  time;  and  it  belongs  to  both  the 
verb  "  gather'''  and  the  verb  "  bloom,"  according  to  Rule  XIII.     Or  say, — 

"  W  hi  le  "  is  an  adverb, — a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  an  ad- 
jective, or  an  adverb  ;  conjunctive,  it  connects  its  own  clause  to  another  to  express 
the  time,  according  to  Note  XIII. 

Abridged. —  While  is  a  conjunctive  adverb  of  time,  modifying  the  verbs  gather 
and  bloom,  and  belonging  to  them  according  to  Rale  XIII.  Or  say,  While  is  & 
conjunctive  adverb  of  time,  that  joins  a  dependent  clause  to  another  clause  ad- 
verbially, or  to  express  the  time,  according  to  Note  XIII. 

u  Can  not  you  go  too  ?" 

11  IVo  t "  is  an  adverb, — a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  an  adjec- 
tive, or  an  adverb  ;  it  is  an  adverb  of  negation;*  and  it  modifies  the  verb  "  can  go" 
with  reference  to  "  you"  and  therefore  belongs  to  them,  according  to  Rule  XIII. 
(Repeat  it.) 

Abridged. — Not  is  a  negative  adverb,  modifying  the  verb  can  go  with  reference 
to  its  subject  you,  and  therefore  belonging  to  them,  according  to  Rule  XIII. 

Parse  the  articles,  adjectives,  nouns,  pronouns,  verbs,  and  adverbs  : — 
1.  Adverbs  Modifying  Verbs. 
The  horse  galloped  gracefully.  My  father  has  just  come. 

The  birds  sung  sweetly.  The  leaves  must  soon  fall. 

God  rules  everywhere.  Lofty  mountains  successively  appear. 

Mary  sews  and  knits  well.  Here  will  I  stand. 

2.  Adverbs  Modifying  Adjectives.. 

Her  child  was  very  young.  lie  is  perfectly  honest 

The  music  rose  softly  sweet.  My  hat  is  almost  new. 

John  is  most  studious.  The  wound  was  intensely  painful. 

3.  Adverbs  Modifying  Adverbs. 

Some  horses  can  run  very  fast.  Thomas  is  not  very  industrious. 

He  stutters  nearly  always.  The  field  is  not  entirely  planted. 

You  must  come  verv  soon.  She  had  been  writing  very  carefully. 

4.  Miscellaneous  Examples. 
Smacka  went  the  whip,  round  went  the  wheels. 
Sadly  and  slowly  we  laid  him  down.13 
In  vain  we  seek  for  perfect  happiness.5 
We  carved  notb  a  line,  we  raised  not  a  stone. 
He  lay  like  a  warrior0  taking  his  rest. 
You  have  advanced  not  far  enough  yet. 
These  scenes,  once  sod  delightful,  no13  longer  please  him. 
Hold  up13  the  flag.       When  will  you  come  ? 
The  dew  glitters  when  the  sun  rises. 
Asa  you  sow,  soa  you  shall  reap. 
Study  while0  young.       He  is  almost*"  a  poet. 


86  PARSING. 

Evens  from  the  tomb  the  voice  of  nature  cries. 
Not  evenh  a  philosopher  can  endure  the  toothache  patiently. 
Even'  asa  a  miser  counts  his  gold, 
Those  hours  the  ancient  timepiece  told. — Longfellow. 
Vainly  but  well  that10  chief  had  fought, 

He  was  a  captive7  now ; 
Yet  pride1  that4  fortune  humbles  not, 
Was  written  on  his  brow. — Bryant. 

(a)  Manner,  (b.)  "  Not"  limits  the  meaning  of  "carved"  in  respect  to  "a  line."  (c.) 
Or  Rule  VI.  (d.)  Degree,  (c.)  "  While  going"  •=  While  you  are  going.  (/.)  "Almost"  is  an 
adverb,  modifying  the  predicate  "  is  a  poet."  (g.)  "Even"  modifies  the  adverbial  adjunct 
"from  the  tomb ;"  or,  rather,  it  modifies  the  verb  "  criea"  with  reference  to  the  phrase 
"from  the  tomb.'1''  Adjuncts  «=  adverbs  or  adjectives;  hence  adverbs  can  modify  them,  and 
not,  as  some  grammarians  teach,  the  preposition  only.  (See  p.  60.)  (h.)  Always  consider 
cirefully  on  lohatthe  mtwiing  of  an  expression  bears,  and  dispose  of  the  expression  accord- 
ingly. Therefore  say.  The  adverbial  expression  "  Not  cczn"  is  used  here  in  the  sense  of  an 
adj  ;ctive,  modifying  "philosopher"  with  reference  to  other  subjects.  (Compare  with  "No 
philosopher,1"  etc.)  Or  else  follow  the  parsing  of  "Can  not  you  go  too  f"  given  above.  Or  else 
Bay,  "  Eosn"  is  an  adverb  modifying  the  entire  proposition  after  it ;  and  "  Not"  is  an  adverb 
modifying  the  entire  proposition  beginning  with  "  even."  This  last  parsing  may  seem  best 
to  rigid  disciplinarians  ii  grammar,  (i.)  "Even"  modifies  the  entire  clause  after  it;  or, 
rather,  it  modifies  "  told"  with  reference  to  this  clause  of  manner. 

Prepositions. 

Formula. — A  preposition, — definition  ;  between  what  it  shows  the  relation ; 
Eule. 

"  The  water  flows  over  the  dam." 

"  Over"  is  &  preposition, — a  word  used  to  govern  a  noun  or  pronoun,  and 
show  its  relation  to  some  other  word  ;  it  here  shows  the  relation  of  *■*  flows"  to 
"  dam,"  according  to  Rule  XiV.     (Repeat  it.) 

Abridged. — Over  is  a  preposition,  showing  the  relation  between  flows  and  dam, 
according  to  Rule  XIV. 

Parse  all  the  words  except  the  conjunctions : — 

I  found  a  dollar  in  the  road.  In  spring,  the  leaves  borne 
forth.  We  should  not  live  beyond  our  means.  He  struggled, 
like  a  hero,  against  the  evils  of  fortune.  An  eagle  rose  near10 
the  city,  and  flew  over  it  far  away  beyond  the  distant  hills.  We 
went  from  New  York  to  Washington  City,  by  railroad,  in  eight 
hours.  As  to  the  policy  of  the  measure,  I  shall  say  nothing. 
The  river  is  washing  the  soil  from  under  the  tree.  I  caught  a 
turtle  in  stead  of  a  fish. 

There  stood  a  forest  on  the  mountain's  brow, 

Which  overlooked  the  shaded  plains  below10 ; 

No  sounding  axe  presumed  those  trees  to  bite,    . 

Coeval  with  the  world,  a  venerable  sight.7 — JDryden. 

Conjunctions. 

Formula. — A  conjunction,  and  why ;  its  peculiar  nature  ;  what  it  conn3cts  ; 
Rule. 

"  The  meadow  produces  grass  and  flowers." 

"  And"  is  a  conjunction, — a  word  used  to  connect  other  words,  and  show  the 
sense  in  which  they  are  connected ;  it  implies  simply  continuance,  or  that  soui* 


PAKSING.  87 

thing  more  is  added ;  and  it  connects  the  words  qrass  and  flowers,  according  to 
Rule  XV. 

Abridged.— And  is  a  copulative  conjunction,  connecting  grass  and  flowers,  ac- 
cording to  rule  XV. 

"You  must  either  buy  mine  or  sell  yours." 

"Either"  is  a  conjunction,  a  word,  etc.  *  *  *  it  corresponds  to  "or"  and 
assists  it  in  connecting  two  phrases,  according  to  Rule  XV. 

u  Or"  is  a  conjunction,  etc.  *  *  *  it  is  alternative,  or  allows  but  one  of  the 
things  offered,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  rest;  it  here  corresponds  to  "either,"  and 
connects  two  phrases,  according  to  Rule  XV. 

Parse  all  the  words : — 

Words  Connected. 

Learn i  lg  refines  and  elevates  the  mind.  It  is  our  duty7  to 
cultivate  our  hearts  and  minds.  She  is  amiable,  intelligent, 
and  handsome.  The  silk  was  light-blue,  or  sky-colored :  it 
should  have  been  white  or  black.     I,  even16  IT,  went. 

Phrases  Connected. 
Through  floods  and  through  forests  he  bounded  away. 
Death  saw  the  floweret  to  the  desert  given, 
Pluoked  it  from  earth,  and  planted  it  in  heaven. 
Clauses  or  Sentences  Connected. 
Eagles  generally  go   alone,  but  little  birds  go  in  flocks. 
Italian  music's  sweet  because  'tis  dear.     I  know  he  is  in  debt, 
for  he  said  so.   If  it  rain  to-morrow,  we  shall  have  to  remain  at 
home.     Sin  may  give  momentary  pleasure,  yet  the  pain  is  sure 
to  follow.     Again,  every  man  is  entitled  to  compensation  for 
his  services.     Whether  my  brother  come  or  not,  I  will  either 
buy  or  rent  the  farm.     Though  he  is  poor,  yet  he  is  honest.     I 
will  pardon  you,  inismuch  as   you  repent.     He  was  always 
courteous  to  wise  and  gifted  men  ;  for  he  knew  that  talents, 
though  in  poverty,  are  more  glorious  than  birth  or  riches  [are1. 
I  have  no  mother,  for  she  died 

When  I  was  very  young ; 
But  her  memory  still  around  my  heart, 
Like  morning  light,  has  hung. 

Interjections. 

Formula. — An  interjection,  and  why  ;  of  what  kind  ;  Rule. 

"  Alas  !  no  hope  for  me  remains." 

A  las  is  an  interjection,  it  expresses  an  emotion  only,  and  is  not  connected  in 
construction  with  any  other  word;  it  here  implies  grief  or  dejection;  and  it  is  used 
independently,  according  to  Rule  XVI. 

Abridged. — Alas  is  an  interjection  of  grief ;    and  it  is  used  independently, 
according  to  Rule  XVI. 
Parse  all  the  words. 

O,  young  Lochinvar  is  come  out  of  the  West.  Ah  !  few10A 
shall  part  where  many,0A  meet !    O  Desdemona2 !  Desdemona ! 

dead  ?      Dead  !       Oh  !    Oh  !    Oh  !       (Supply  art  thou  and  thou  art.) 


88  FALSE    SYNTAX. 


12.     FALSE    SYNTAX. 
Nouns  and  Pronouns.— Rule  I.— Nominatives. 

Him  and  me*  are  in  the  same  class.  You  and  him  had  a  long  dispute. 
Thee  art  most  in  fault.  Them  are  my  gloves.  I  have  tasted  no  better 
apples  than  them  are.  Them  that  seek  wisdom,  will  find  it.  Him  I  accuse* 
ha3  entered.  He  whom,  etc.  Were  you  and  her  at  the  party?  "Whom, 
would  you  suppose,  stands  head  in  our  class  ?  He  promised  to  employ  whom- 
soever should  be  sent.  I  do  not  think  such  persons  as  him  [is]  competent  to 
judge.  There  is  no  better  housekeeper  than  her  [is  whom]  you  have  dismissed. 
Did  not  you  see  it,  as  well  as  me  ?  He  is  taller  than  me,  but  I  am  as  tall  as  her. 
Who  made  the  fire? — John  and  me  [made  it].  Who  swept  the  room ?— TJa 
girls.       Who  rode  in  the  buggy? — Him  and  Jane. 

The  advice  of  those  whom  you  think  are  hearty  in  the  cause,  must  direct 
you. —  Washington.       A  reward  was  offered  to  whomsoever  would  point  out  a 
practicable  road. —  Walter  Scott.       Truth  is  greater  than  us  all. — H.  Mann. 
And  goodly  sons  grew  by  his  side, 
But  none  so  lovely  and  so  brave 
As  him  who  withered  in  the  grave. — Byron. 
*  Incorrect :  him  and  me,  in  the  objective  case,  should  be  he  and  J,  in  the  nominative 
case, — to  the  verb  are, — according  to  Rule  1st.    (Repeat  it.) 


Observation. — The  object  of  the  active  verb,  and  not  that  of  the  prepo- 
sition, should  generally  be  made  the  subject  of  the  passive  verb. 

I  was  offered  a  seat*  He  was  offered  the  control  of  the  school.  He  waa 
left  a  large  estate  by  his  uncle.  We  were  shown  a  sweet  potato  that  weighed 
15  pounds.       You  were  paid  a  high  compliment  by  the  young  lady. 

Mr.  Burke  was  offered  a  \evy  lucrative 'employment. — Prof.  Goodrich. 

*  Incorrect :  not  I,  but  scat,  should  be  made  the  nominative  to  was  offered,  according  to 
the  Observation  under  Rule  1st.   (Repeat  it.)    The  sentence  should  be,  A  seat  wan  offered  me. 

Eule  II.— Nominatives. 

Me*  being  sick,  the  business  was  neglected.  Him  who  had  led  them  to 
battle  being  killed,  they  retreated.  Them  refusing  to  comply,  I  withdrew 
And  me, — what  shall  I  do?  Her  being  the  only  daughter,  no  expense  had 
been  spared  in  her  education.  There  is  no  doubt  of  its  being  him.  He  had 
no  doubt  of  its  being  me.     — that  it  was  I. 

Whose  gray  top  shall  tremble,  Him  descending. — Milton. 

*  Incorrect:  me,  in  the  objective  ense,  should  be  /,  in  the  nominative  case, — being  used 
absolutely  before  being, — according  to  Rule  2d.  (Repeat  it,  and  then  always  state  what  the 
corrected  seutence  should  be.) 

Rule  III— Possessives. 

A  mothers*  tenderness  and  a  fathers  care  are  natures  gifts  for  man's  advan- 
tage. His  misfortunes  awaken  nobody's  pity,  though  no  ones  ability  ever  went 
farther  for  others  good.  Six  months  interest  remained  unpaid.  How  do  you 
like  Douglas'  bill?  I  like  Macaulay  much  better  than  Alison's  style.  He 
disobeyed  his  father  as  well  as  his  mother's  advice.  Do  you  use  Webster  or 
Worcester's  Dictionary  ?  Brown,  Smith,  and  Jones's  wife,  usually  went  shop- 
ping together.  I  have  no  time  to  listen  to  either  John  or  Joseph's  lesson. 
He  was  averse  to  the  nation  involving  itself  in  war.  His  father  was  apposed 
to  him  going  to  California.  (Is  it  proper  to  write  Ws,  her's,  our^s,  or  their's?) 
His  curse  be  on  him.  He,  who  knoweth 
Where  the  lightnings  hide. — Mrs.  Sigoumey. 


FALSE    SYNTAX.  89 

*  Incorrect :  mothers  should  be  mother's  (with  an  apostrophe  before  the  *),  according  to 
Rule  3d.     (And  state  how  the  possessive  case  is  properly  formed.) 


Obs.  1. — The  possessive  sign,  and  the  word  of,  should  be  used  to  relieve 
each  other  in  such  a  way  as  will  make  the  sentence  most  clear  and 
agreeable. 

Essex's0  death  haunted  the  conscience  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  Socrates's  life 
and  death.  Demosthenes' — Demosthenes's  orations.  For  Herodias'  sake, 
his  brother  Philip's  wife.  John's  brother's  wife's  sister  married  a  mechanic. 
The  extent  of  the  prerogative  of  the  King  of  England.  Daniel  Boone  of  Ken- 
tucky's adventures.  The  Governor  of  Pennsylvania's  message.  He  is 
Clay  the  great  orator's  youngest  son.  The  opinionative  man  thinks  his  own 
opinions  better  than  any  one's  else  opinions — any  one  else's  opinions. 

*  Incorrect :  Essex's  death  should  rather  be,  The  death  of  Essex,  according  to  Obs.  1st, 
under  Rule  3d,  etc 

♦ 

Obs.  2. — When  two  or  more  words,  taken  together,  denote  but  one 
possessor,  or  when  the  same  object  belongs  in  common  to  two  or  more 
possessors,  the  possessive  sign  is  annexed  but  once,  and  to  the  word  im- 
mediately before  the  word  or  phrase  denoting  what  is  possessed. 

These  works  are  Cicero's,  the  most  eloquent  of  men's.*  Jack's  the  Giant- 
killer's  wonderful  exploits.  Call  at  Smith's,  the  bookseller's.  South  of  Ma- 
son's and  Dixon's  Line.  Send  me  Andrews'  and  Stoddard's  Latin  Grammar. 
Send  me  Pope  and  White's  Shakespeare.  Morrison's  and  Price's  farms  are  the 
next  two  on  the  road.  Morrison's  farm  and  Price's  are,  etc.  Bond's,  Bush- 
nell's,  and  Woodward's  stores,  occupy  the  next  three  buildings.  It  was  the 
men's,  women's,  and  children's  lot,  to  suffer  great  calamities.  Allen's,  Thom- 
son's, and  Hardcastle's  store  is  opposite  to  ours.  Allen,  Thomson,  and  Hard- 
castle's  stores,  are  not  joint  possessions. 

*  Incorrect :  not  men,  but  Cicero  only,  should  have  the  possessive  sign,  according  to  Obs. 
2d,  under  Rule  3d.     (Repeat  it,  and  state  what  the  corrected  sentence  should  be.) 

Rule  IV.— Objectives. 

Let  him  send  you  and  I*  to  the  spring.  Let  thou  and  I  the  battle  try. 
Having  dressed  hisself,  he  went  to  church.  Who  do  you  want?  Who  shall 
we  send  ?  She  that  is  idle  and  mischievous,  reprove  sharply.  He  and  they 
we  know,  but  ye  we  do  not  know.  Who  did  you  mean?  Who  did  you  see? 
But  who  have  we  here  ?  They  that  treat  me  kindly,  I  will  treat  so  too.  He 
who  is  guilty,  you  should  correct ;  not  I,  who  am  innocent. 

Who  should  I  meet  the  other  day  but  my  old  friend ! — Addison. 

*  Incorrect :  I,  in  the  nominative  case,  should  be  me,  in  the  objective  case,— being  one  of 
the  objects  of  the  verb  send, — according  to  Rule  4th,  etc 

Rule  V.— Objectives. 

There  is  some  pudding  left  for  you  and  I.*  Who  is  that  boy  speaking  to  ? 
To  whom,  etc.  Who  was  it  sent  to?  Who  were  you  talking  with?  They 
who  much  is  given  to,  will  have  much  to  answer  for.  There  was  no  one  in 
the  room,  except  he.  I  gave  it  to  somebody ;  I  have  forgotten  who.  I  do 
not  know  who  she  went  with.       Who  did  he  send  for? — We. 

Who  does  he  look  like  in  that  dress  ? — Marlowe. 

*  Incorrect :  /,  in  the  nominative  case,  should  bo  me,  in  the  objective  case,— being  one  of 
the  objects  of  for, — according  to  Rule  5th,  etc. 

Rule  VII.— Same  Cases. 

They  slew  Yarns,  he*  that  was  mentioned  before.  They  slew  Yarus,  who 
was  him  that  was  mentioned  before.       It  wasn't  me ;  it  was  him  or  her.       It 


90  FALSE    SYNTAX. 

was  them  that  said  so.  It  could  not  have  been  him.  I  knew  it  was  her. 
Whom  do  you  think  it  was?  Whom  do  men  say  that  I  am?  Who  do  you 
take  mo  to  be?  It  is  not  me  he  is  in  love  with.  — not  I  that —  Who 
was  it? — Me.  Was  it  him,  or  me,  that  you  called?  Is  it  him  whom  you 
said  it  was?       I  knew  it  was  him.       I  knew  it  to  be  he. 

*  Incorrect:  he,  in  the  nominative  case,  should  be  him,  in  the  objective  case,  to  agree 
with  Varus,  according  to  Rule  7th.    (Repeat  it,  and  state  the  corrected  sentence,  as  usual.) 

Rule  IX.— Pronouns. 

(Whatever  makes  a  singular  or  a  plural  subject,  makes  also  a  singular  or  a 
plural  antecedent.     See  p.  42.) 

Every  person  should  try  to  improve  their*  mind  and  heart.  Nobody  will 
ever  entrust  themselves  to  that  boat  again.  A  person  who  is  energetic  and 
watchful,  will  be  apt  to  succeed  in  their  undertakings.  Will  some  one  of  you 
lend  me  your  umbrella  ?  Many  a  man  looks  back  on  the  days  of  their  youth, 
with  melancholy  regret.  The  generals,  each  in  their  turn,  walked  round  the 
coffin.  If  you  have  any  victuals  left,  we  will  help  you  eat  it.  I  like  molas- 
ses, when  they  are  clean.  The  cuckoo  lays  his  eggs  in  the  nest  of  other  birds. 
The  hen  looked  very  disconsolate,  when  it  saw  its  whole  brood  rush  into  the 
pond.  If  we  deprive  an  animal  of  instinct,  he  will  be  no  longer  able  to  take 
care  of  himself.  When  a  bird  is  caught  in  a  trap,  they  of  course  try  to  get  out. 
Each  of  the  sexes  should  keep  within  their  proper  bounds.  To  persecute  a  truly 
religious  denomination,  will  only  make  them  flourish  the  belter.  The  people  can 
not  be  long  deceived  by  its  demagogues.  I  have  no  interests  but  that  of  truth  and 
virtue.  Every  herb,  every  flower,  and  every  animal,  shows  the  wisdom  of  Him 
who  made  them.  One  or  the  other  must  relinquish  their  claim.  If  any  boy  or  girl 
be  absent,  they  will  have  to  go  to  the  foot  of  the  class.  — he  or  she —  Coffee 
and  sugar  are  imported  from  the  West  Indies ;  and  large  quantities  of  it  are 
consumed  annually. 

Each  occupied  their  several  premises,  and  farmed  their  own  land. — Thos.  Jef- 
ferson. — his  own —  It  is  our  duty  to  protect  this  government  and  that  flag 
from  every  assailant,  be  they  whom  they  may. — Senator  Douglas. 

*  Incorrect :  their  should  be  his,  to  agree  with  person,  according  to  Rule  9th,  etc. 


Obs.  a. —  Wlio  13  applied  to  persons,  and  generally  to  personified  objects. 

WJiich  is  applied  to  all  objects  except  persons,  and  sometimes  to 
persons  in  asking  questions. 

That  is  used  in  speaking  of  both  persons  and  things,  after  the  super- 
lative degree,  after  same,  after  the  interrogative  who,  or  wherever  who, 
which,  or  what,  would  be  less  proper. 

Those  which*  are  rich,  should  assist  the  poor  and  helpless.  So  I  gave  the 
reins  to  my  horse,  who  knew  the  way  much  better  than  I  did.  The  horse 
and  rider  which  wro  saw,  fell  in  the  battle.  Was  it  the  wind,  or  you,  who 
shut  the  door  ?  It  is  the  best  which  can  be  got.  Moses  was  the  meekest 
man  whom  we  read  of  in  the  Old  Testament.  It  is  the  same  coach  which 
stopped  at  the  church.  I  am  the  same  as  I  was.  I  gave  all  what  I  had. 
I  sent  every  thing  what  you  ordered.  Who  is  she  who  comes  clothed  in  a 
robe  of  light  green?  Who  of  those  ladies  do  you  like  best?  Of  all  the 
congregations  whom  I  ever  saw,  this  was  certainly  the  largest.  (A  congrega- 
tion is  a  thing  rather  than  a  person.)  This  lubberly  boy  we  call  Falstaft;  who 
is  but  another  name  for  fat  and  fun.  The  heroic  souls  which  defended  the 
Alamo.       Humility  is  one  of  the  most  amiable  virtues  which  we  can  possess. 

With  the  return  of  spring  came  four  martins,  who  were  evidently  the  same 
which  had  been  bred  under  those  eaves  the  previous  year. —  U.  S.  Reader. 

*  Incorrect :  which  should  be  who,  according  to  Obs.  a,  under  Nouns  and  Pronouns,  etc. 
(Repeat  so  much  of  the  Observation  as  is  applicable.) 


FALSE    SYNTAX.  <>1 

Obs.  b. — Nouns  and  pronouns  should  be  correctly  used  in  gender  and 
number,  according  to  the  sense,  and  the  proper  form  of  the  word. 

She  is  administrator.*  He  was  married  to  a  most  beautiful  Jew.  The  room 
is  eighteen  footf  long,  and  sixteen  foot  wide.  I  measured  the  log  with  a  pole 
ten  foot  long — with  a  ten-feet  pole.  The  teamster  hauled  four  cord  of  wood  and 
three  ton  of  hay,  in  nine  hours.  Several  chimnies  were  blown  down.  Some  of 
the  first  familys.  Several  potatos.  His  brother-in-laws  were  educated  at  the 
same  college.  The  Drs.  Hunters  and  the  Misses  Bartons.  The  Old  and  the 
New  Testaments — the  Old  and  New  Testament,  in  one  largo  volume,  called  the 
Bible.  You  may  learn  the  ninth  and  tenth  page — the  ninth  and  the  tenth  pages, 
and  review  the  first  or  second  pages.  The  farm  is  a  long  ways  from  market. 
We  encamped  behind  a  small  woods.  Let  us  make  a  memoranda  of  it.  It 
was  for  our  sakes  that  Jesus  died  upon  the  cross.  Few  persons  are  contented 
with  their  lots.       The  Lee's  were  distinguished  officers  in  the  Revolution. 

The  heathen  are  those  people  who  worship  idols. —  Webster 's  Spelling -Booh. 

*  Incorrect :  administrator,  the  masculine  word,  should  be  administratrix,  the  feminine, 
— for  it  evidently  denotes  a  female, — according  to  Obs.  ft,  under  Nouns  and  Pronouns,  etc. 
t  Incorrect :  foot,  in  the  singular  number,  should  be  feet,  in  the  plural  number,  to  agree 
with  eighteen,  according  to,  etc.  But  singular  in  compound  adjectives;  as,  "A  two-foot  ruler." 


Obs.  C. — Politeness  usually  requires,  that  the  speaker  shall  mention  the 
addressed  person  first,  and  himself  last. 

I,  Mary,  and  you,*  are  to  go  next  Sunday.  If  James  and  you  take  the 
horses,  I  and  Martha  shall  have  nothing  to  ride.  Mother  said  that  I  and  you 
must  stay  at  home. 

*  Incorrect :  1,  Mary,  and  you,  should  be,  You,  Mary,  and  I,  according  to,  etc. 


Obs.  d. — Nouns  and  pronouns  should  be  so  construed  with  other 
words  as  not  to  leave  the  case  or  relation  uncertain  or  ambiguous. 

The  settler  here*  the  savage  slew.  (Which  slew  the  other?)  I  would 
rather  give  her  to  thee  than  another.  If  the  lad  should  leave  his  father,  ho 
would  die.  (Repeat  the  noun.)  John  told  James  that  his  horse  had  run  away. 
(Vary  the  sentence.)  Lysias  promised  his  father,  that  he  would  never  forsake  his 
friends.  The  king  dismissed  his  minister  without  inquiry,  who  had  never  before 
been  guilty  of  so  unjust  an  action.  Where  there  is  nothing  in  the  sense  which 
requires  the  last  sound  to  be  elevated,  a  pause  will  be  proper.  Wliere  the  sense 
has  nothing  that  requires,  etc.  When  a  man  kills  another  from  malice,  it  is  called 
murder.  — the  deed  is  called  murder.  This  rule  is  not  strictly  true,  and  a 
few  examples  will  show  it.  — as  a  few  examples  will  shoio.  The  law  is  inope- 
rative, which  is  not  right.     ■ — and  that  it  is  so,  is  not  right. 

And  thus  the  son  the  fervent  sire  addressed. — Pope^s  Homer.  The  lord 
can  not  refuse  to  admit  the  heir  of  his  tenant  upon  his  death ;  nor  can  ho  remove 
his  present  tenant  so  long  as  ho  lives. — Blackstone. 

*  Incorrect :  the  sentence  is  ambigaous.  It  should  be,  Here  the  savage  slew  the  settler,-— 
which  was  the  meaning  of  the  writer,— according  to,  etc. 

Articles. 

Obs.  1. — Articles  should  be  chosen  or  omitted  with  great  care,  in  order 
that  the  proper  meaning  may  be  expressed. 

A  common  noun,  without  an  article,  denotes  the  class  generally,  a  part 
indefinitely,  or  merely  the  kind  oY  thing. 

The  shows  that  all  are  meant,  or  that  a  particular  one  or  part  is  meant. 

A  points  out  but  one  indefinitely,  and  implies  that  there  are  others. 


92  FALSJS   SYNTAX. 

A  pine  is  a  species  of  a  tree.*  The  pine  is  a  species  of  tree.  (For  how  can  one 
tree  be  a  species,  or  a  species  a  part  of  one  tree  !)  What  kind  of  a  man  is  he? 
Such  a  man  does  not  deserve  the  name  of  a  gentleman.  The  highest  officer 
of  a  State  is  styled  a  Governor.  Reason  was  given  to  a  man  to  control  his 
passions.  The  Tennessee,  the  Missouri,  and  the  Mississippi,  are  all  the  names 
derived  from  the  Indian  languages.  The  whites  of  America  are  the  descend- 
ants of  the  Europeans ;  but  the  blacks  are  the  descendants  of  the  Africans,  and 
the  Indians  are  descendants  of  the  aborig'ines.  When  a  whole  is  put  for 
the  part,  or  the  part  for  a  whole ;  a  genus  for  the  species,  or  the  species  for  a 
genus ;  a  singular  for  a  plural,  or  a  plural  for  a  singular, — the  figure  is  called  a 
synecdoche.  Sometimes  one  article  is  improperly  put  for  another.  A  pro- 
noun is  a  part  of  speech  used  for  a  noun.  A  violet  is  an  emblem  of  modesty. 
The  profligate  man  is  seldom  or  never  found  to  be  the  good  husband,  the  good 
father,  or  the  beneficent  neigbor.  He  received  only  the  fourth  part  of  the 
estate.  A  winding  stairs  led  us  to  the  Senate  Chamber.  A  flight  of,  etc. 
The  child  was  not  a  three  weeks  old  when  it  died.  The  Jews  returned  to 
their  country  after  a  seventy  years  captivity  in  Babylon.  — a  captivity  of  sev- 
enty—  The  ancients  supposed  the  fire,  the  air,  the  earth,  and  the  water,  to 
be  the  elements  of  all  other  material  things.  Drunkenness  makes  a  man  of 
the  brightest  parts  the  common  jest  of  the  meanest  clown. 

The  original  signification  of  knave  was  a  boy.  —  Webster's  Spelling-Booh. 
A  librarian  is  the  person  who  has  charge  of  a  library. — Id.  The  work  is  de- 
signed for  persons  who  may  think  it  merits  a  place  in  their  libraries. — Preface 
of  Murray's  Grammar.  The  violation  of  this  rule  never  fails  to  displease  a 
reader. — Blair's  Rhetoric. 

*  Incorrect :  pine  here  denotes  all,  or  the  species ;  and  therefore  the  should  he  used  hefore 
it.  Tree  refers  to  the  class  generally,  and  therefore  no  article  should  be  used  hefore  it.  (Re- 
peat, of  the  general  Observation,  only  what  is  applicable  to  the  example  which  you  are  cor- 
recting.) 


Obs.  2. — A  should  be  used  before  consonant  sounds. 
( IT  long,  en,  w,  o  in  one,  and  y  articulated  with  a  vowel  after  it,  have  each  a 
consonant  sound.) 

An  should  be  used  before  vowel  sounds. 

(That  is,  before  a,  e,  i,  o,  u  not  equivalent  to  yu,  y  articulated  with  a  consonant 
after  it,  silent  k,  and  h  faintly  sounded  when  the  next  syllable  has  the  chief  accent. 
See  Kerl's  Comprehensive  Grammar,  pp.  173 — 81.) 

He  had  a  interest  in  the  affair.*  It  is  an  universal  complaint.  Argus  is 
said  to  have  had  an  hundred  eyes.  There  was  not  an  human  being  on  the 
place.  An  African  or  an  European.  A  erroneous  conclusion.  A  adjective 
belongs  to  the  noun  which  it  qualifies.  A  humble  request.  Is  it  an  i,  or  an 
u  f  I  would  not  use  such  an  one.  An  hero.  A  heroic  action.  A  hered- 
itary feud.       An  hyacinth.       A  hyper'bole.       At  —  hotel  on  Broadway. 

An  ubiquitous  quack. — Edgar  A.  Poe.       An  useful  exercise. — N.  Y.  Teacher. 

*  Incorrect:  a  should  he  an;  because  interest — the -word  immediately  after  it — begins 
with  a  vowel  sound,  and  according  to  Observation  '2d,  under  Articles,  An  should,  etc. 


Obs,  3. — "When  the  repetition  of  the  article  would  suggest  more  ob- 
jects than  are  meant,  the  article  should  be  omitted. 

When  the  omission  of  the  article  would  not  suggest  all  the  objects  that 
are  meant,  the  article  should  be  repeated. 

The  Old  and  the  New  Testaments  *  The  Old  and  New  Testament.  There 
is  another  and  a  better  world.  My  friend  was  married  to  a  sensible  and  an 
amiable  woman.       Everett,  the  scholar,  the  statesman,  and  the  orator,  should 


FALSE    SYNTAX.  93 

be  invited.  She  is  not  so  good  a  cook  as  a  washerwoman.  Fire  is  a  better 
servant  than  a  master.  The  figure  is  a  globe,  a  ball,  or  a  sphere.  The  white 
and  black  inhabitants  amount  to  several  thousands.  A  beautiful  stream  flowed 
between  the  old  and  new  mansion.  Give  the  possessive  and  the  objective  cases 
of  who — the  possessive  and  objective  case  of  who. 

The  sick  and  wounded  were  loft  at  this  place. — Life  of  Jackson. 

*  Incorrect :  the,  repeated,  improperly  suggests  here,  that  there  are  several  Testaments, 
in  stead  of  two ;  therefore  it  should  not  have  been  repeated,  according  to,  etc.  (Vary  the 
formulas  whenever  the  example  requires  a  variaton.) 


Obs.  4. — A  participial  noun  generally  requires  an  article  before  it  and 
of  alter  it,  or  else  the  omission  of  both  the  article  and  the  preposition. 

A  wise  man  will  avoid  the  showing  any  excellence  in  trifles.*  Great  ben- 
efit may  be  derived  from  reading  of  good  books.  It  is  an  overvaluing  ourselves, 
to  reduce  every  thing  to  our  own  standard  of  judging.  I  shall  oppose  the  grant- 
ing this  company  any  more  privileges.     — the  granting  of  any  more  'privileges  to — 

He  left  off  building  of  Ramah,  and  dwelt  in  Tirzah. — Bible.  The  best  busi- 
ness now  is  the  opening  farms  and  rearing  stock. — Agricultural  Journal. 

*  Incorrect :  showing,  having  the  before  it,  should  also  have  of  after  it,  or  else  both  the 
and  of  should  be  omitted,  according  to,  etc. 

Adjectives. 

Obs.  1. — Adjectives  implying  number  must  agree,  in  this  respect,  with 
the  nouns  to  which  they  belong. 

You  have  been  playing  this  two  hours.*  How  do  you  like  those  kind  of 
carriages?  "We  have  been  intimate  friends  this  ten  years.  I  never  liked 
these  sort  of  bonnets.       I  think  that  were  the  very  words  he  used. 

*  Incorrect :  this  should  be  these,  to  agree  with  hours,  according  to,  etc 


Obs.  2. — Double  and  all  other  improper  comparatives  or  superlatives 
Bhould  be  avoided. 

A  farmer's  life  is  the  most  happiest.*  A  more  healthier  place  can  not  be 
found.  I  never  before  lived  in  a  more  healthier  and  pleasanter  neighborhood. 
She  is  the  most  loveliest  one  of  the  sisters.  Nothing  can  be  more  worse — 
worser.  The  lesser  quantity  I  remove  to  the  other  side.  I  think  the  rose  is 
the  beautifullest  of  flowers.  It  was  the  curiousest  thing  I  ever  saw.  Virtue 
confers  the  supremest  dignity  on  man,  and  should  be  his  chiefest  desire.  Cotton 
is  most  principally  raised  in  the  Southern  States.  The  heath-peach  is  more 
preferable  than  the  Indian  peach.     — is  preferable  to — . 

Against  the  envy  of  less  happier  lands. —  Shakespeare.  After  the  most 
strictest  sect  of  our  religion  I  lived  a  Pharisee. — Bible.  By  silence,  many  a 
dunderpate,  like  the  owl,  the  stupidest  of  birds,  comes  to  be  considered  the  very 
type  of  wisdom. —  Washington  Irving. 

*  Incorrect :  happiest  is  itself  a  superlative,  and  most  happiest  would  therefore  be  a 
double  superlative,  which  is  improper,  according  to,  etc. 


Obs,  3. — The  superlative  degree  must  be  used  when  three  or  more 
objects  are  compared,  and  the  comparative  is  usually  required  when  but 
two  are  compared. 

The  largest  of  the  two  boys  goes  to  school. .  The  youngest  of  the  two  sis- 
ters is  the  handsomest,  Which  is  the  largest  number, — the  minuend  or  the 
subtrahend  ?       His  wife  is  the  best  manager";  therefore  let  her  rule  him.       The 

5 


94  FALSE    SYNTAX. 

latter  one  of  the  three  boys  had  lost  his  books.       "Which  do  you  like  best, — tea 
or  coffee  ? 

*  Incorrect :   largest,  in  the  superlative  degree,  should  be  larger,  in  the  comparative 
degree, — because  but  two  objects  are  compared, — according  to,  etc. 


Obs.  4. — The  superlative  degree  represents  the  described  object  as 
being  a  part  of  the  others. 

All  comparisons  without  the  superlative  degree  do  not  strictly  represent 
the  object  denoted  by  one  term  as  being  a  part  of  those  denoted  by  the 
other. 

The  word  other,  and  similar  terms,  imply  two  distinct  parts  and  yet  but 
one  class. 

China  has  the  greatest  population  of  any  other  country  on  earth.*  Jacob 
loved  Joseph  more  than  all  his  children.  Youth  is  the  most  important  period  of 
any  in  life.  There  is  nothing  so  good  for  a  sprain  as  cold  water.  — nothing  else — 
He  was  less  partial  than  any  historian  that -ever  wrote  on  the  subject.  None 
of  our  magazines  is  so  niteresting  to  me  as  Harper's.     No  other  one  of,  etc. 

These  people  seemed  to  us  the  most  ignorant  of  any  we  had  yet  seen. — N.  Y. 
Herald.  Noah  and  his  family  outlived  all  the  people  who  lived  before  the 
flood. —  Webster's  Spelling- Book.     (They  could  not  have  outlived  themselves.) 

*  Incorrect.:  China  is  here  absurdly  represented  as  being  one  of  the  countries  with  which 
it  is  compared ;  therefore  the  greatest  of  should  be  a  greater  than,  according  to  Obs. ,  etc 

Verbs. 

Obs.  1  — Our  own  voluntary  actions  are  expressed  by  will,  and  our  con- 
tingent ones  by  shall ;  the  contingent  actions  of  others  are  expressed  by- 
will,  and  their  compulsory  ones  by  shall. 

A  foreigner,  having  fallen  into  the  Thames,  cried  out,  "  I  will  be  drowned ; 
nobody  shall  help  me."*  "We  will  have  to  take  our  coats,  or  we  will  suffer 
from  cold.  Will  I  find  you  here  when  I  return  ?  Were  I  to  go  with  }-ou,  I 
would  get  a  whipping.  Would  wo  hear  a  good  lecture,  if  wo  would  go? 
Whoever  will  catch  him,  will  be  rewarded.  I  was  afraid  I  would  lose  my 
money.       If  I  wished  him  to  come,  I  would  have  to  write  to  him. 

We  will  then  find  that  this  confiscation  bill  was  impolitic ;  and  we  will  have 
to  suffer  for  our  folly,  in  the  protraction  of  this  war. —  Crittenden. 

*  Incorrect :  this  sentence  implies  that  he  wished  to  be  drowned,  and  wanted  no  one  td 
help  him ;  will  should  therefore  be  shall,  and  sliall  should  be  will,  according  to,  etc. 


Obs.  2. — The  preterit  is  the  proper  form  for  affirming,  without  an  auxil- 
iary verb,  past  acts  or  states. 

The  perfect  participle,  and  not  the  preterit,  should  be  used  after  have,  he, 
and  their  variations. 

I  seen  him  yesterday.*  I  had  saw  it  before.  I  done  so.  They  done  the 
best  they  could.  He  has  took  my  hat.  He  run  all  the  way.  They  begun 
well,  but  ended  badly.  He  drunk  but  little.  They  been  here  a  whole  day. 
I  seen  the  boy  when  he  done  it.  I  might  have  went  last  Saturday,  and  ought 
to  have  went.  The  river  is  froze  over.  My  coat  is  completely  wore  out. 
The  tree  had  fell,  and  all  its  branches  were  broke.  The  apples  were  shook  off 
by  the  wind.  I  knew  he  had  wrote  it ;  for  it  was  well  writ.  Write  to  him. — 
I  have  done  wrote.     — have  already  written. 

You  have  chose  the  worse. —  Washington  Irving. 

*  Incorrect :  seen,  the  perfect  participle,  should  be  saio,  the  preterit,  according  to  tho 
first  part  of  Observation  2d,  under  Verbs,  etc. 


FALSE    SYNTAX.  95 

Obs.  3. — Verbs  should  not  be  made  transitive,  intransitive,  or  passive, 
contrary  to  their  general  use,  or  contrary  to  analogy. 

He  had  fled  his  native  land.*  Pharaoh  and  his  host  pursued  after  them. 
San  Francisco  connects  with  the  sea,  by  an  entrance  one  mile  wide.  It  now 
repents  me  that  I  did  not  go.  /  now  repent,  etc.  Well,  I  suppose  we  aro 
agreed  on  this  point.  "We  had  just  entered  into  the  house.  My  friend  is  re- 
turned— is  arrived.  He  is  possessed  of  great  talents,  —possesses —  His 
estate  will  not  allow  of  such  extravagance. 

It  must  be  so,  for  miracles  are  ceased. — Shakespeare. 

*  Incorrect :  fled  is  here  improperly  made  transitive ;  therefore  from  should  be  used 
after  it,  to  express  its  proper  relation  to  land,  according  to,  etc. 


Obs.  4. — In  mood  and  tense,  the  verbs  of  a  sentence  should  properly 
correspond,  and  also  be  consistent  with  the  other  words. 

The  indicative  mood,  in  conditional  clauses,  expresses  doubt  only  j  but 
the  subjunctive  mood,  both  doubt  and  future  time,  or  mere  suppositions. 

In  the  indicative  mood,  general  truths  must  be  expressed  by  the  present 
tense. 

The  perfect  infinitive  denotes  something  as  past  at  the  time  referred  to ; 
and  the  present  infinitive,  as  present  or  future. 

The  Lord  hath  given,  and  the  Lord  hath  taken  away.*  I  know  the  family 
more  than  twenty  years.  I  am  now  two  years  in  this  city.  Next  Christmas 
I  shall  be  at  school  a  year.  He  that  was  dead,  sat  up,  and  began  to  speak. 
The  Glenn  family  will  try  and  requite  tho  favor.     — try  to  requite — 

I  wish  I  was  at  home.  He  talked  to  me  as  if  I  was  a  widow.  If  the  book 
be  in  my  library,  I  will  send  it  immediately.  If  the  book  is  found  in  my  library, 
I  will  send  it  immediately.  If  the  book  was  in  my  library,  I  would  send  it  im- 
mediately. If  the  book  were  in  my  library,  some  one  must  have  taken  it.  If 
these  remedies  be  applied,  and  the  patient  improves  not,  the  case  may  be  con- 
sidered hopeless. 

He  said  it  was  forty  miles  from  Baltimore  to  "Washington.  No  one  sus- 
pected that  he  was  a  foreigner.  Our  teacher  told  us  that  the  air  had  weight. 
Plato  maintained,  that  the  Deity  was  the  soul  of  the  universe.  A  late  writer  on 
horses  supposed,  that  a  horse  could  perform  tho  labor  of  six  men. 

I  intended  to  have  written  to  him.  I  hoped  to  have  met  several  of  my 
friends  there,  but  was  disappointed.  It  was  your  duty  to  have  assisted  your 
friend.       He  is  supposed  to  be  born  about  three  centuries  ago. 

This  was  four  years  ago  next  August. — School  Report.  They  were  not 
able,  as  individuals,  to  have  influenced  the  twentieth  part  of  the  nation. — Jeffer- 
son. Tho  most  glorious  hero  that  ever  desolated  nations,  might  have  mould- 
ered into  oblivion,  did  not  some  historian  take  him  into  favor. — Irving. 

*  Ticorrecfc :  the  giving  and  the  taking  could  not  have  been  both  at  the  same  time ;  there- 
fore hath  given  should  be  gave,  etc.     (Give,  also,  the  definitions  of  the  tenses.) 


Ob's.  5. — The  compound  participle  should  not  be  needlessly  made  a  part 
of  a  compound  verb,  or  used  to  express  the  act  in  the  progressive  sense. 

Wheat  is  now  being  sold  for  a  dollar  a  bushel.  — is  now  selling —  ,My 
predictions  are  now  being  fulfilled.  Another  church  was  being  built  in  tho 
upper  part  of  the  city.  My  coat  is  now  being  made  by  the  tailor.  The  tailor 
is  now  making,  etc.  His  anticipations  are  now  being  realized.  Dramshops 
are  now  being  closed  on  Sundays.  — are  closed —  More  than  20,000  children 
aro  being  gratuitously  educated  in  this  city.     — are  receiving  gratuitous  educa- 


96  FALSE    SYNTAX. 

Hon —      Such  a  poem  is  worth  being  committed  to  memory.     — committing — » 
"Whatever  is  worth  being  done,  is  worth  being  done  well  [Magazine. 

Here  certain  chemical  mysteries  are  being  secretly  carried  on. — Harper's 
Remark. — This  clumsy  form  is  rather  an  innovation  ;  but  the  newspapers  of 
our  civil  war  will  probably  establish  it.  "With  a  little  care,  a  better  expression 
can  trenerally  be  found.  Verbs  denoting  momentary  or  mental  acts,  seldom  admit 
the  form.  The  form  is  used  only  in  the  present  and  past  indicative,  and  in  the 
past  subjunctive.  It  is  made  by  putting  the  word  being  into  the  common  passive 
verb,  between  the  auxiliary  and  the  participle. 

Ex.  (To  be  conjugated.) — Indic.  Pres.  Sing.  1.  I  am  being  defeated,  2.  You 
are  being  defeated,  3.  He  is  being  defeated ;  Plur.  1.  We  are  being  defeated,  2. 
You  are  being  defeated,  3.  They  are  being  defeated.  Past.  Sing.  1.  I  was  being 
defeated,  2.  You  were  being  defeated,  3.  He  was  being  defeated  ;  Plur.  1.  We 
were  being  defeated,  2.  You  were  being  defeated,  3.  They  were  being  defeated. 
Subjonc  Past.  Sing.  1.  If  I  were  being  defeated,  2.  If  you  were  being  defeated, 
3.  If  he  were  being  defeated ;  Plur.  1.  If  we  were  being  defeated,  2.  If  you  were 
beiug  defeated,  3.  If  they  were  being  defeated. 

Rule  XI.— Person  and  Number. 

I  called  at  your  house,  but  you  was  not  at  home.0  "Was  you  there  ?  My 
outlays  is  greater  than  my  income.f  Thou  heard  the  storm ;  did  thou  not  ? 
Thou  shall  go.  I  always  learns  my  lessons,  lefore  I  goes  to  school.  There  is 
ten  cords  of  wood  in  the  pile.  Every  one  of  the  turkeys  were  caught  by  a  fox. 
Every  ten  tens  makes  one  hundred.  Not  one  of  us  have  seen  your  hat. 
"Wheat  and  rye  is  sowed  in  fall;  but  oats  is  sowed  in  spring.  Ashes  are 
always  used  in  the  plural  number.  Tion  are  pronounced  shun.  Two  parallel 
lines  denotes  equality.  Five  dimes  is  half  a  dollar.  Nothing  but  offices  are 
sought  by  most  politicians.  The  molasses  are  excellent.  What  signifies  fair 
words  without  good  deeds  ?  Six  is  too  many  to  ride  in  the  canoe  at  once.  Six 
months'  interest  are  due  on  the  bonds.  The  sum  of  twenty  thousand  dollars 
have  been  spent  on  the  bridge.  A  hundred  thousand  dollars  of  revenue  is  in 
the  treasury.  The  public  is  respectfully  invited.  Generation  after  generation 
pass  away.  Mary  and  her  cousin  was  at  our  house  last  week.  Neither 
Mary  nor  her  cousin  were  at  our  house  last  week.  There  was  hay  and  corn  in 
plenty.       How  is  your  father  and  mother  ?       Where  is  your  slate  and  pencil  ? 

Such  is  the  tales  his  Nubians  tell, 

Who  did  not  mind  their  charge  too  well. — Byron. 

In  Mauchline  there  dwells  six  proper  young  belles. — Burns. 

•  Incorrect:  was  should  be  were,  to  agree  with  you,  according  to  Rule  11th,  etc.  t  In- 
correct: is  should  be  are,  to  agree  with  outlays,  a  plural  subject,  according  to,  etc.  (See 
p.  42.) 

•  ♦ 

Obs.  1. — The  promiscuous  use  of  different  forms  of  verbs  in  the  same 
connection,  is  inelegant. 

He  giveth,  and  he  takes  away.- — Harper's  Magazine.  Does  he  not  behave 
well,  and  gets  his  lessons  as  well  as  any  other  boy?  Did  you  not  borrow  so 
much  of  me,  and  promised  to  return  it  ?  To  profes3  regard,  and  acting  differ- 
ently, discovers  a  base  mind.  Professing  regard,  and  to  act  differently,  dis- 
covers a  base  mind.  Educating  is  to  develop  the  mind.  Spelling  is  easier 
than  to  parse  or  cipher. 

Thou  who  didst  call  the  Furies  from  the  abyss, 

And  round  Orestes  bade  them  howl  and  hiss. — Byron. 

•  Incorrect:  giveth  should  be  gives,  or  takes  should  be  takelh,  according  to,  etc. 


Obs.  2. — To,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  is  omitted  after  the  active  rerb» 


FALSE   SYNTAX.  97 

bid,  make,  need,  hear,  let,  see,  feel,  dare,  and  the  auxiliaries ;  and  sometimes 
after  a  few  other  verbs  that  are  like  some  of  these  in  sense. 

If  I  bid  you  to  study,  dare  you  to  be  idle  ?  We  made  her  to  believe  it.  To 
go  I  could  not,  but  to  remain  I  would  not.  That  old  miser  was  never  seen 
give  a  cent  to  the  poor.  We  ought  not  speak  ill  of  others,  unless  there  is  a 
necessity  for  it.       Will  you  please  answer  my  letter  immediately  ? 

In  a  few  modes  of  expression,  the  to  must  be  retained;  as,  "  I  feel  it  to  be  ray 
duty ;"  "  I  can  not  see  to  write  the  letter,"  etc. 

Adverbs. 

Obs. — Adjectives  should  be  used  to  qualify  nouns  or  pronouns;  and 
adverbs,  to  qualify  verbs,  adjectives,  or  adverbs.      See  p.  64,  Exercises. 

We  landed  safely,  after  all  our  misfortunes.*  She  sews  good  and  neat.  It 
is  near  done.  Speak  slow  and  distinct.  I  am  only  tolerable  well,  sir.  I 
never  studied  grammar ;  but  I  can  talk  just  as  good  as  them  that  talk  grammat- 
ical. Velvet  feels  smoothly.  I  felt  bad  about  the  matter.  You  have  be- 
haved very  bad.  I  can  easier  raise  a  crop  of  hemp  than  a  crop  of  tobacco. 
Abstract  principles  are  best  learned  when  clearest  illustrated. 

Hindostan  is  a  remarkable  fine  country. — Lord  Jeffrey. 

*  Incorrect:  safely,  the  adverb,  qualifies  we  rather  than  landed  ;  and  therefore  it  should 
be  safe,  the  adjective,  according  to,  etc. 

Prepositions. 

Obs. — In  the  use  of  prepositions,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  select 
the  most  appropriate. 

Into,  from  outside  to  inside  ;  in,  inside  only ;  at,  indefinitely  in  or  about ;  in, 
definitely  within;  between,  two  only;  among, , three  or  more;  a  taste  •/' what  is 
enjoyed,  a  taste  for  what  wo  wish  to  enjoy;  disappointed  ofvAmt  is  not  obtained, 
disappointed  in  what  fails  to  answer  our  expectations  after  it  is  obtained  ;  die  of 
disease,  — by  an  instrument ;  compare  with,  for  ascertaining  merits,  — to,  for  illus- 
tration. 

Abhorrence  of;  accuse  of;  adapted  to  ;  agreeable  to  ;  aspire  to  ;  capacity  for  ; 
confide  in;  dependent  on;  independent  of;  derogation  from ;  differ,  different, 
from;  diificulty  in;  diminution  of;  eager  in;  followed  by  ;  founded  on;  in- 
fluence over;  made  of;  need  of:  occasion  for  /  omitted  from  ;  prejudice  aqainst ; 
profit  by ;  quarrel  with ;  resemblance  to  ;  rely  on  ;  reconcile  with  ;  swerve  from. 

Do  not  let  the  dog  come  in  the  house.*  These  bonnets  were  brought  in 
fashion  last  year.  He  died  with  the  typhoid  fever — for  thirst — with  the  sword. 
He  was  accused  with  having  acted  unfairly.  In  some  of  these  derivative 
words,  the  e  is  omitted.  Religion  and  membership  may  differ  widely  with  each 
other.  This  is  a  different  dinner  to  what  we  had  yesterday.  This  case  has 
no  resemblance  with  the  other.  I  have  little  influence  with  him.  He  camo 
of  a  sudden.  The  sultry  evening  was  followed  with  a  storm.  The  soil  is 
adapted  for  hemp  and  tobacco.  I  have  been  at  France.  I  board  in  the  new 
hotel.  The  space  between  the  three  lines  is  the  area  of  the  triangle.  — within — < 
I  was  disappointed  in  the  pleasure  of  meeting  you. 

•  Incorrect :  in  should  be  into,  because  the  sense  is  not  "  inside  only,"  but  from  "  outside 
to  inside,"  which  is  best  expressed  by  into  ;  and  according  to  Obs.,  etc. 

Miscellaneous  Precepts. 

Obs.  1. — When  two  negatives  destroy  each  other's  effect,  one  should  be 
omitted  to  express  denial.  * 

I  will  never  do  so  no  more.*  We  didn't  find  nobody  at  home.  I  don't 
know  nothing  about  your  affairs.  I  never  said  nothing  about  it.  Death 
never  spared  no  one.  She  will  never  grow  no  taller.  Neither  you,  nor  no 
one  else,  can  walk  ten  miles  in  one  hour. 


98  FALSE    SYNTAX. 

No  skill  could  obviate,  nor  no  remedy  dispel,  the  terrible  infection. — Goldsmith. 

•  Incorrect:  the  two  negatives,  never  and  no,  contradict  each  other;    and  therefore  one 
should  be  omitted  or  changed,  to  express  denial,  or  the  meaning  intended,  according  to,  etc 


Obs.  2. — Adjectives,  adverbs,  and  adjuncts,  should  be  so  placed  in  the 
sentence  as  to  make  it  correct,  clear,  and  elegant. 

The  bad  position  of  adjectives  and  adjuncts  is  generally  improved,  by  bringing 
them  nearer  to  what  they  qualify  ;  and  adverbs  should  generally  bo  placed  before 
the  adjectives  or  adverbs  which  they  modify,  after  verbs  in  the  simple  form,  and 
"between  the  auxiliary  and  the  rest  of  the  verb  in  the  compound  form ;  but  they 
are  seldom  allowable  between  to  and  the  rest  of  the  infinitive. 

I  have  bought  a  new  pair  of  shoas  and  a  black  bolt  of  cloth.*  The  congre- 
gation will  please  to  sing  tho  throe  first  and  the  two  last  stanzas  of  the  hymn. 
The  dress  had  rows  of  silk  fancy  green  buttons.  I  only  recited  one  lesson. 
(Only  what  ?)  I  only  bought  the  horse,  and  not  the  buggy.  I  have  bor- 
rowed this  horse  only,  yet  I  intend  to  buy  him.  Men  contend  frequently 
about  trifles.  They  became  even  grinders  of  knives  and  razors.  All  that  wo 
hear,  we  should  not  believe.  They  wero  not  such  as  to  fully  answer  my  purpose. 
A  lecture  on  the  methods  of  teaching  geography,  at  ten  o'clock.  Wanted — a 
young  man  to  take  care  of  some  horses,  of  a  religious  turn  of  mind.  At  that 
time  I  wished  somebody  would  hang  me  a  thousand  times.  After  he  had 
gained  five  thousand  dollars,  by  speculation,  he  lost  more  than  half  of  it. 

Every  man  can  not  afford  to  keep  a  coach. —  Webster's  Spelling- Booh.  An 
improper  triphthong  is  one  in  which  all  the  vowels  are  not  sounded. — Butler. 

*  Incorrect ;  not  the  pair  is  new,  but  the  shoes  are  so,  etc. 


Obs.  3. — No  needless  word  should  be  used. 

That  there  apple  is  better  than  this  hero  one.  He  died  in  less  than  two 
hours'  time.  Where  is  William  at?  I  was  not  able  for  to  do  it.  I  have 
got  to  go.  The  passion  of  anger  is  tho  cause  of  many  evils.  John  he  went, 
James  he  went,  and  Mary  she  went ;  but  the  rest  they  all  staid  at  home.  These 
lots,  if  they  had  been  sold  sooner,  they  would  have  brought  more  money.  If 
these  lots  had  been  sold  sooner,  etc.  Whatever  she  found,  she  took  it  with  her. 
A  child  of  ten  or  twelve  years  old.  These  savage  people  seemed  to  have  nti 
other  element  but  that  of  war.  It  is  equally  as  good  as  the  other.  If  I  mis- 
take not,  I  think  I  have  seen  you  before.  Old  age  will  prove  a  joyless  and  a 
dreary  season,  if  we  arrive  at  it  with  an  unimproved  or  with  a  corrupted  mind. 

Our  debts  and  our  sins  are  generally  greater  than  we  think  for. — Franklin. 


Obs.  4. — No  necessary  word  should  be  omitted. 

The  sale  of  one  farm  or  several  will  take  place  to-day.  We  were  at  the 
fair,  and  saw  every  thing  there.  Yonder  is  the  place  I  saw  it.  He  was  a 
man  had  no  influence.  I  approve  your  plan  so  far  as  relates  to  him.  Why 
do  what  is  not  lawful  to  do  ?  He  did  it  for  your  and  my  friend's  welfare. 
Neither  my  house  nor  orchard  is  injured.  Both  the  principal  and  interest. 
Money  is  scarce,  and  times  hard.  I  never  have  and  never  will  assist  such  a 
man.  (A  part,  relating  to  two  or  more  before  it,  must  suit  each.)  They  might, 
and  probably  were,  good.  Meadows  are  always  beautiful,  but  never  so  much 
as  in  the  opening  of  spring.  — so  much  so —  The  remark  is  worthy  the  fool 
that  made  it.  There  is  nothing  to  prevent  him  going.  White  sheep  are  much 
more  common  than  black.       There  is  no  situation  so  good  anywhere. 


Obs,  5. — All  the  parts  of  a  sentence  should  so  correspond  as  to  be  con- 


FALSE    SYNTAX.  99 

sistent ;  and  the  words  ana  their  arrangement  should  be  the  most  appro- 
priate in  which  the  meaning  can  be  expressed. 

The  wounded  had  laid  on  the  ground  all  night. — Philadelphia  Inquirer. 
After  laying  awhile,  he  raised  up.  We  were  all  setting  round  the  fire.  What 
do  you  ask  for  them  peaches  ?  Tbe  business  will  suit  any  one  who  enjoys  bad 
health.  It  is  useless  trying.  — to  try —  No  one  likes  being  in  debt.  Com- 
promising conflicting  opinions  will  be  ever  necessary  in  a  republic.  To  compro- 
mise, etc.  Such  cloaks  were  in  fashion  five  years  since.  — ago —  (Since 
properly  reckons  forward  from  a  past  point  of  time ;  and  ago,  back  from  present 
time.  Since  is  daily  misused.)  A  wicked  man  is  not  happy,  be  he  never  so 
hardened  in  sin.  Neither  our  position,  or  the  plan  of  attack,  was  known.  I 
will  see  if  it  snows  or  no.  — whether  *  *  *  or  not.  She  is  such  a  good 
woman.  — so  good  a  woman.  The  book  is  not  as  accurate  as  I  wished  it 
to  be.  This  is  none  other  but  the  gate  of  Paradise.  — than —  A  corrupt 
government  is  nothing  else  but  a  reigning  sin.  A  conjunction  connects  words, 
phrases,  and  sentences.  There  is  no  doubt  but  what  he  is  mistaken.  — no 
douU  that —  There  are  few  things  so  difficult  but  what  they  may  be  overcome. 
Cedar  is  not  so  hard  but  more  durable  than  oak.  — so  hard  as  oak,  but  more 
durable.  It  is  different  and  superior  to  the  old.  lie  confides  and  depends  upon 
me.  I  cart  not  find  one  of  my  books.  A  diphthong  is  where  two  vowels  are 
united  in  one  sound.  — is  the  union  of —  (For  it  is  not  place.)  A  diphthong 
is  when  two  vowels  are  united.  Fusion  is  whilo  a  solid  is  converted  into  a 
liquid  by  heat.  At  the  same  time  that  men  are  giving  their  orders,  God  is 
also  giving  his.  While  men,  etc.  Ho  drew  up  a  petition  where  he  too  freely 
represented  his  own  merits.  — in  which —  The  poor  man  who  can  read,  and 
that  has  a  taste  for  reading,  can  find  entertainment  at  home.  — and  ivho — 
Policy  keeps  coining  truth  in  her  mints — such  truth  as  it  can  tolerate;  and 
every  die  except  its  own,  she  breaks,  and  casts  away.  These  evils  were  caused 
by  Catiline,  who,  if  he  had  been  punished,  the  republic  would  not  have  been 
.exposed  to  dangers. so  great.  — the  punishment  of  wlwm  would  have  prevented 
tlie  republic  from  being  exposed,  etc. 

The  horses  had  scarcely  crossed  the  bridge,  than  the  head  of  the  third  battal- 
ion appeared  on  the  other  side. — Harper's  Magazine.  — when —  0  fairest 
flower,  no  sooner  blown  but  blasted  1 — Mdton.  By  intercourse  with  wise  and 
experienced  persons,  who  know  the  world,  wo  may  improve  and  rub  off  the 
rust  of  a  private  education. — Spectator.  My  father  had  just  presented  me  with 
a  knife. — K  Y.  Teacher.  Prepositions,  you  recollect,  connect  words  as  well  as 
conjunctions;  how,  then,  can  you  tell  th3  ono  from  the  other? — Small's  Gram. 

We  lay  things,  and  then  they  lie ;  we  set  things,  or  they  sit  or  jU  well;  but 
we  ourselves  sit  Do  not  say  hadn't  ov/jht  to  for  ought  not  to  ;  them  books,  them 
cups,  them  boya,  etc.,  for  those  books,  those  cups,  t'wse  boys ;  had  liave  Jmd  for  had 
had ;  guine  for  going  ;  fat  or  jest  for  just ;  sich  for  such;  disremember  for  forget 
Do  not  say  yourn,  hern,  hissen,  ourn,  thcirri,  nor  write  your\s,  her's,  our's,  their' s, 
for  yours,  hers,  Ids,  ours,  theirs.  Do  not  say  a  great  ways,  a  little  ways,  somewheres, 
nowheres,  anywheres,  for  a  great  way,  a  little  way,  somewfiere,  nowhere,  anywlicre. 
Do  not  say  mighty  Utile,  great  big,  a  good  deal,  a  nation  deal,  in  a  bad  fix,  for 
very  little,  very  large,  much,  in  a  bad  condition.  Do  not  say  got  to  go  for  must  go; 
aiat  for  am  not,  is  not,  or  are  not ;  chaw  for  chew ;  a  licking  for  a  beating ;  unbe- 
knoion  for  unknown ;  ary  me  for  either  one  or  any  one ;  nary  one  for  neither  one 
or  no  one ;  shet  for  shut ;  to  get  shet  of  for  to  get  rid  of.  Do  not  speak  of  doing 
things  a  heap  for  doing  things  much.  Do  not  say  the  school  takes  up  for  begins ; 
nor  say  used  up  for  worn  out  or  destroyed ;  nor  picked  up  for  deceived  ;  nor  cracked 
up  for  praised  or  represented;  nor  fixed  up  for  repaired,  dressed,  or  ready. 


100  FALSE    SYNTAX. 

Miscellaneous   Examples- 

1.  To  say  that  a  person  is  consequential,  is  the  same  thing  as  saying  they  aro 
not  of  much  consequence. — Jane  Taylor.  We  have  simply  to  go  to  work,  each 
m  our  places,  and  do  our  work. — Sec.  Cliase.     Marius  ordered   a  low  temple  to 

be  built  to  Honor,  thereby  intimating  that  humility  was  the  true  way  to  honor. 

Lempriere.  Neither  of  these  States  are  entitled  to  bounty. — Hall.  What  avails 
all  our  toil  and  care  in  amassing  what  we  can  not  enjoy. — N.  Y.  Teacher.  It 
would  have  been  no  difficult  matter  to  have  compiled  a  volume  of  such  prec- 
edents.—  Cowper. 

2.  He  is  one  of  the  preachers  that  belongs  to  the  church  militant,  and  takes 
considerable  interest  in  politics.  Every  body  seemed  to  enjoy  themselves.  I 
thought  it  to  be  him,  but  it  was  not  him.  The  book  is  her's.  Toasts  -were 
[drank  ?  or  drunk ?]  It  was  such  a  sound  that  I  never  heard  before.  It  is 
the  same  man  who  stood  on  the  portico.  Every  thing  whatsoever  he  could  spare, 
he  gave  away.  (Rule  VIII.)  There  is  no  man  knows  better  how  to  make 
money.  It  is  more  easier  to  pull  down  than  to  build  up.  There  is  the  n  ost 
business  done  in  New  York  of  any  c'ty  in  the  Union.  He  is  one  of  the  most 
influential  and  richest  men  in  the  city.  (Apparently,  most  richtst.  Change  tho 
order.)     A  large  reward  and  pardon  lias  been  offered.  m 

3.  The  least  of  two  evils  must  be  preferred.  —  Washington.  I  hoped  there 
•would  have  been  no  further  cause  of  uneasiness.  — Id.  We  have  been  prcvtnttd 
marching  to-day  by  the  rains. — Id.  Some  were  employed  in  blowing  of  glass, 
others  in  weaving  of  linen. — Gibbon.  We  have  marched  eight  days,  laid  in 
water,  and  ate  any  thing  we  could  get. — Phil.  Press.  A  large  portion  of  ihem 
continue  to  secretly  cherish  a  love  for  the  Union. — lb.  Which  phrase,  if  it  mean 
anything,  means  paper  money. — Atlantic  Monthly.  Among  these  islanders,  no 
feeling  is  so  deep  as  veneration  for  the  tombs  of  their  ancestors. — Asiatic  Islands. 

4»  She  looks  beautifully  in  her  new  silk  dress.  You  did  the  work  as  good 
as  I  could  expect.  The  offer  was  no  sooner  made  but  he  accepted  it.  I  would 
have  been  obliged  to  him,  if  he  had  have  sent  it.  The  three  first  classes  have 
recited.  He  has  seen  as  much,  perhaps  more,  of  the  world,  than  I  have.  (Com- 
plete the  construction  of  tho  first  part.  — as  much  of  *  *  *  as  I  have  seen, 
and  perhaps  more.)  He  can  and  ought  to  give  more  attention  to  his  business. 
The  cost  of  the  carriage  was  added  to,  and  greatly  increased,  my  expense.  No 
one  ever  sustained  such  mortifications  as  I  have  done  to-day.  I,  you,  and  he, 
must  go.       Do  like  I  did.       (As,  manner ;  like,  generally  resemblance.) 

5.  The  religion  of  Christ  has  taught  us  to  look  upon  such  crimes  as  were 
often  committed  by  the  Persian  kings  with  horror  and  disgust. — Peter  Parley. 
I  shall  be  happy  always  to  see  my  friends. — Ec  Magazine.  Let  them  the  State 
defend,  and  he  adorn. — Gowley.  A  proper  fraction  is  less  than  1,  because  it  has 
less  parts  than  it  takes  to  make  a  unit. — Golburn.  — fewer —  Three  fourths  is 
more  than  on©  half. — Bullions.  An  hospital  is  an  asylum  for  the  sick. — 
G.  Brown.  A  word  modifying  either  of  the  three  principal  parts  of  a  sentence, 
is  an  adjunct.  Who  ever  achieved  any  thing  great  in  letters,  arts,  or  arms, 
who  was  not  ambitious  ? 

6.  In  thee  is  our  hope  and  strength.  Four  and  two  is  six.  and  one  is  seven. 
No  hope,  no  power  remain.  What  is  its  person  and  number?  Every  tree 
and  steeple  were  blown  down.  Every  boy's  cap  and  coat  was  stolen.  Books; 
and  not  company,  occupies  his  mind.  (Determine  Which  is  the  subject,  and 
make  the  verb  agree  with  it.)  Company,  and  not  books,  occupy  his  mind. 
The  crown  of  virtue  are  peace  and  honor.       His  chief  occupation  and  enjoyment 

were  controversy.       The  father,  and  his  son  too, in  the  battle.        The  legist 

lalure  have  adjourned.  The  railroad  company  was  rather  uneasy  — were 
rather  unsafe.  To  advance  or  to  retreat  were  equally  dangerous.  (Equally  re- 
quires and.)      Between  him  and  I. 


FALSE    SYNTAX.  101 

7.  "Washington  was  given  the  command  of  a  division. — Irving.  The  greater 
part  of  the  forces  were  retired  into  winter-quarters. — Id.  Were  Aristotle  or 
Plato  to  come  among  us,  they  would  find  no  contrast  more  complete  than  be- 
tween their  workshops  and  those  of  New  York. — Bancroft.  (Supply  also  that.) 
The  cunning  of  the  hunter  and  the  old  buck  were  often  stationed  against  one* 
another. — Hall.  — that  of  *  *  set  *  *  each —  It  was  not  me  that  you  saw. 
—  Clark.       John  arrived  as  soon  as  me — a  little  earlier  than  me. — Id. 

8.  He  should  not  marry  a  woman  in  high  life,  that  has  no  money.  The 
man  brought  the  whole  package,  which  was  more  than  we  expected.  Religion 
will  afford  us  comfort,  when  others  forsake  us.  We  saw  the  lady  while  passing 
down  the  street.  (Who  passed  ?)  What  do  you  think  of  [us  ?  or  our  ?]  going 
into  partnership?  (See  p.  44.)  That  very  subject  which  we  are  now  discuss- 
ing, was  lately  decided  in  Kentucky.  (This  implies  nearness,  or  has  the  sense 
of  latter ;  that  implies  distance,  or  has  the  sense  of  former.)  These  very  men 
with  whom  you  traveled  yesterday,  are  now  in  jail.  Religion  elevates  man, 
irrcligion  degrades  him ;  that  binds  him  to  the  earth,  this  raises  him  to  heaven. 

9.  The  use  of  which  accents  [Greek  and  Roman]  we  have  now  entirely  lost. 
— Blair.  (We  never  had  them  to  lose.  Say,  is  lost.)  Our  pronunciation  must 
have  appeared  to  them  [the  Greeks  and  the  Romans]  a  lifeless  monotony. — Id. 
(They  neve»  heard  it.  Say,  would  have  appeared.)  A  large  portion  of  the 
valley  of  the  Amazon  is  annually  overflown. — Stephens.  We  should  like  to  know 
whether  we  will  be  allowed  to  retain  our  arms  and  flag. — N.  Y.  Times.  The 
United  States  having  thus  become  the  [proprietor  ?  or  proprietors?]  of  what 
[is  t  or  are  ?]  called  the  public  lands,  the  nation  was  rescued  from  many  evils. 
— flail. 

10.  Please  walk  in  the  setting  room.  Whom  shall  I  say  called?  Who 
did  you  vote  for  ?  I  doubt  if  it  be  true.  She  looked  as  though  she  knew. 
— as  if —  Let  us  worship  God,  he  who  created  and  sustains  us.  Do  you 
thus  speak  to  me,  I  who  have  so  often  befriended  you  ?  (Better  omit  I  alto- 
gether.) It  was  to  your  brother,  to  whom  I  am  most  indebted.  He  insists 
on  it,  that  he  is  right.  I  wonder  that  none  of  them  never  thought  of  it.  '  I 
ain't  got  no  book.  A  participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  and  which  ex- 
presses action  or  being.  If  I  bid  you  to  study,  dare  you  to  be  idle  ?  She 
was  made  believe  it.  Tins  measure  is  taking  a  bold  step.  E  has  a  long  and 
short  sound.  A  little  flowing  rivulet.  Mr.  John  Dorriss,  Esq.  (The  latter 
title  supersedes  the  former.)  The  neck  connects  the  head  and  trunk  together. 
Said  client  believes  said  judge  prejudiced  to  his  cause.  My  brother's  being 
sick  was  the  cause  of  his  absence.  My  brother's  sickness  teas,  etc.  The  ver- 
mins  were  so  numerous  that  we  could  raise  no  fowl.  I  live  to  home  with  my 
mother.     (Error  common  in  New  York  and  New  England.) 

Disputed. — " To-morrow  will  be  Saturday."  Correct.  "To-morrow  is  Satur- 
day." Allowable ;  mere  predication.  Sometimes  also  the  present  tense  is  used 
to  express  future  events  more  vividly.  "I  feel  [badt  or  badly  t]  about  the  mat- 
ter." Analogy  is  in  favor  of  bad ;  but  custom  is  in  favor  of  badly.  See  Kerfs 
Comp.  Gram.,  p.  248.  "  On  page  twenty -fifth."  Correct.  "  On  page  twenty- 
five."  Allowable.  25  is  here  a  noun,  representing,  by  synecdoche,  page,  and 
put  in  apposition  with  it.  Compare  with  "The  year  1862."  In  discussing  a 
subject  by  numerical  divisions,  whether  we  should  say,  "  First,  secondly,  thirdly" 
etc.,  or,  "  First,  second,  third,"  etc.,  will  depend  on  the  sense,  or  whether  we 
refer  to  the  verb  or  the  divisions.  "A  hotel" — Noah  Webster;  "An  hotel" — 
Russell,  Kinglake,  and  English  writers  generally.  "Our  forces  were  to  have 
advanced  last  Tuesday."  Generally  condemned ;  but  it  means,  they  did  not 
advance.  "Our  forces  were  to  advance  last  Tuesday."  And  perhaps  they  did 
advance ;  we  have  no  news  from  them  as  yet.  "  I  would  rather  be  in  his  place." 
Correct  "  I  had  rather  be  in  his  place."  Good  old  English,  aud  allowable  col- 
loquial modern  English.     See  p..  36 ;  also  Cowper's  Works. 

5* 


102  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 


1*     ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES. 

Discourse  is  a  general  word  denoting  either  prose  or  poetry* 

Discourse  ma}7  be  divided  into  paragraphs. 

Paragraphs  are  composed  of  sentences. 

All  sentences  may  be  resolved  into  propositions. 

Every  proposition  must  have  a  subject  and  a  predicate. 

Every  subject  must  be  a  nominative,  or  have  a  nominative. 

"Every  predicate  must  be  a  finite  verb,  or  have  a  finite  verb. 

Sentences  are  divided  into  simple,  complex,  and  compound. 

A  simple  sentence  has  but  one  predicate. 

A  complex  or  compound  sentence  has  two  or  more  predicates. 

A  complex  sentence  must  have  at  least  one  proposition  that  is  de« 
pendent,  or  that  is  used  in  the  sense  of  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an 
adverb. 

A  compound  sentence  must  have  at  least  two  propositions  of  which 
neither  is  dependent,  or  used  in  the  sense  of  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or 
an  adverb. 

A  compound  sentence  may  consist  of  complex  sentences  or  mem- 
bers. 

Exercises. 

Tell  whether  the  sentence  is  simple,  complex,  or  compound,  and  why ;  mention 
the  propositions  or  clauses,  and  why ;  mention  the  subjects  and  the  predicates,  and 
why  ;  and  whether  simple  or  compound,  and  why : — 

The  flowers  are  gemmed  with  dew.  The  maple  on  the  hillside  has  lost  its 
bright  green,  and  its  leaves  have  the  hue  of  gold.  As  you  come  near,  they 
spring  up,  fly  a  little  distance,  and  light  again,  f  Suspicion  ever  haunts  tii€ 
guilty  mind.  Hard  things  become  easy  by  use;  and  skill  is  gained  by  little 
and  little.  The  weight  of  years  has  bent  him,  and  the  winter  of  age  rests  upon 
his  head.  He  touched  his  harp,  and  nations  heard  entranced.  The  union  is 
the  vital  sap  of  the  tree;  if  we  reject  the  Constitution,  we  girdle  the  tree;  its 
leaves  will  wither,  its  branches  drop  off,  and  the  mouldering  trunk  will  be  torn 
down  by  the  tempest.  The  good  times,  when  the  farmer  entertained  the 
traveler  without  pay;  -when  he  invited  him  to  tarry,  and  join  in  the  chase; 
when  Christmas  and  Fourth  of  July  were  seasons  of  general  festivity,— have 
passed  away.  %  "Thy  worldly  hopes,"  said  the  hermit,  "shall  have  faded,  thy 
castles  of  ambition  crumbled,  and  thy  fiery  passions  subdued,  ere  thou  hast 
reached  the  meridian  of  life."  §  Read  this  Declaration  at  the  head  of  tho  army, 
— every  sword  will  be  drawn  from  its  scabbard,  and  the  solemn  vow  uttered,  to 
maintain  it,  or  to  perish  on  the  bed  of  honor.  (Construe  both  the  infinitive  phrases 
with  each  of  the  two  clauses  just  before  them  in  the  same  member.)      What 

*  A  sentence  is  merely  so  much  of  discourse  aa  makes  a  complete  thought  in  the  view  of 
the  person  uttering  it;  ii])>'02^sitioii  is  a  single  combination  of  such  words  as  make  a  predi- 
cation, judgment,  or  thought ;  and  a  phrase  is  merely  two  or  more  words  rightly  put  together 
for  thought,  without  expressing  a  predication,    t  When  ?  %  What  kind  of  times  ?  §  S.id  what 


ANALYSIS    OF   SENTENCES.  103 

costs  nothing,  is  worth  nothing.  That  ho  must  fail,  is  certain.  'Tis  liberty 
alone  that  gives  the  flowers  of  fleeting  life  their  'lustre  and  perfume.  Go,  and 
assist  him,  that  the  work  may  be  finished.  He  who  is  false  to  God,  is  not  true 
to  man.  Though  thy  slumbers  may  be  deep,  yet  thy  spirit  shall  not  sleep ; 
there  are  shades  that  will  not  vanish,  there  are  thoughts  thou  canst  not  banish.- 
To  dress,  to  visit,  to  gossip,  and  to  thrum  her  piano,  are  the  chief  employments 
of  the  modern  belle. 


Every  proposition  is  either  declarative,  interrogative,  imperative, 
or  exclamatory.     Every  sentence  is  the  same,  or  a  composite  of  these. 

A  declarative  proposition  expresses  a  declaration  ;  an  interroga- 
tive proposition,  a  question  ;  an  imperative  proposition,  a  command ; 
and  an  exclamatory  proposition,  an  exclamation. 

Ex.— "John  rides  that  wild  horse."  "Does  John  ride  that  wild  horse?1' 
**  John,  ride  that  wild  horse."  "  John  rides  that  wild  horse  !"  An  exclamatory 
sentence  is  merely  a  declarative?  an  interrogative,  or  an  imperative  sentence,  ut- 
tered chiefly  to  express  the  emotion  of  the  speaker. 

Exercises. 

The  propositions  ;  and  whether  declarative,  interrogative,  imperative,  or  exclama- 
tory^ and  why : — 

A  waving  willow  was  bending  over  the  fountain.  Rise,  and  defend  thyself. 
Shall  I  assist  you?  How  beautiful  is  yonder  sunset!  If  James  has  a  hun- 
dred marbles,  why  does  he  never  show  us  any  of  them  ?  Men  may,  I  find,  be 
honest,  though  they  differ.  Now  Twilight  lets  her  curtain  down,  and  pins  it 
with  a  star.  .  Green  be  the  turf  above  thee,  friend  of  my  better  days.  What 
shall  I  say?  What  a  piece  of  work  is  manl  She  is  busy  in  the  garden, 
among  the  posies.  The  spreading  orange  wave3  a  load  of  gold.  Hear  him I 
hear  him!  There  can  be  no  study  without  time;  and  the  mind  must  abide,  and 
dwell  upon  things,  or  be  always  a  stranger  to  the  inside  of  them.  The  fly  sat 
upon  the  axle-tree  of  the  chariot- wheel,  and  said,  "  What  a  dust  do  I  raise!" 


Every  proposition  is  either  independent  or  dependent. 

An  independent  proposition  makes  complete  sense  by  itself. 

A  dependent  proposition  depends  on  another  for  complete  sense. 

The  clause  of  a  complex  sentence  on  which  the  other  clauses  depend,  is  often, 
called  the  principal  or  leading  clause;  its  subject  and  predicate,  the  principal  or 
hading  subject  and  predicate  ;  and  the  dependent  clauses,  subordinate  clauses. 

Exercises. 

The  propositions  ;  and  whether  independent  or  dependent,  and  why: — 

The  morning  dawns,  and  the  clouds  disperse.  The  dew  glistens,  when  the 
cun  rises.  I  would  not  enter,  on  my  list  of  friends,  the  man  who  needlessly  seta 
foot  upon  a  worm.  Stillest  streams  oft  water  fairest  meadows;  and  the  bird 
that  flutters  least,  is  longest  on  the  wing.  The  path  of  sorrow  leads  to  the  land 
where  sorrow  is  unknown.  If  the  mind  be  curbed  and  humbled  too  much  in 
childrenr-if  their  spirits  be  abased  and,  broken  much  by  too  strict  a  hand  over 
them, — they  lose  all  their  vigor  and  industry.  Come  ye  in  peace  here,  or  come 
ye  in  war?  In  one  place  we  saw  a  gang  of  sixty-five  horses ;  but  the  buffaloes 
seemed  absolutely  to  cover  the  ground.  "Come,"  says  Puss,  "without  any 
more  ado;  'tis  time  to  go  to  breakfast:  cats  don't  five  upon  dialogues." 


104  ANALYSIS    OF   SENTENCES. 

Every  proposition  may  be  divided  into  the  entire  subject  and  the 
entire  predicate. 

The  entire  subject  must  have  one  or  more  subject-nominatives  to 
the  same  verb  or  verbs. 

The  entire  predicate  must  have  one  or  more  finite  verbs  agreeing 
with  the  same  subject,  which  may  be  called  the  predicate-verbs. 

Hence  both  subjects  and  predicates  are  either  simple  or  compound. 

The  subject-nominative  may  be  a  word,  a  phrase,  or  an  entire  clause  ;  the  predi- 
cate-verb is  simply  a  verb,  or  a  principal  verb  with  its  auxiliaries. 

Most  grammarians  call  the  entire  subject  the  logical  subject ;  the  entire  predi- 
cate, the  logical  predicate  ;  the  subject-nominative,  the  grammatical  subject ;  and 
the  predica(£-verb,  the  grammatical  predicate.  This  mode  of  naming  is  not  so 
simple  as  the  one  we  have  given. 

Exercises. 

The  propositions  ;  the  entire  subjects,  and  then  the  suljcct-nominatives  ;  the  entire 
predicates,  and  then  the  predkate-verbs : — 

Men  work.  Most  men  work  daily.  The  leaves  rustle.  The  leaves  rustlo 
in  the  passing  breeze.  Leaves  and  Mowers  must  perish.  Flowers  bloom  and 
fade.  Leaves  and  flowers  flourish  and  decay.  Poplars  and  alders  ever  quiv- 
ering played,  and  nodding  cypress  formed  a  fragrant  shade.  In  youth  alone, 
unhappy  mortals  live ;  but,  ah !  the  mighty  gift  is  fugitive.  The  same  errors 
run  through  all  families  in  which  there  is  wealth  enough  to  afford  that  their 
sons  may  be  good  for  nothing.  Depart.  In  concert  act,  like  modern  friends, 
since  one  can  serve  the  other's  ends.  That  it  is  our  duty  to  be  kind  and 
obliging,  admits  of  no  doubt.  The  division  and  quavering  which  please  so 
much  in  music,  have  a  resemblance  to  the  glittering  of  light,  as  when  the  moon- 
beams play  upon  the  water.  It  is  often  the.  fault  of  parents,  guardians,  and 
teachers,  that  so  many  persons  miscarry.  (Here  either  "It"  or  the  clause  "  that 
so  many,"  etc.,  may  be  considered  the  subject  of  "is,"  and  the  other  term  may 
be  parsed  as  agreeing  with  the  subject  in  case.)  It  is  hardly  practicable  for  the 
human  mind  to  obtain  a  clear  and  familiar  knowledge  of  an  art,  without  illustra- 
tions and  exemplifications.  Ah  mel  the  blooming  pride  of  May,  and  that  of 
beauty,  are  but  one. 


The  parts  into  which  sentences  are  divided  in  analysis,  are  called 

elements.     Subject-nominatives  and  predicate-verbs  are  the  principal 

elements  ;  and  they  may  be  modified  by  words,  j)hrases7  or  clauses. 

A  part  that  modifies  another,  adds  something  to  its  meaning,  or  takes  away 
something. 

What  modifies,  is  either  explanatory  or  restrictive. 
Ex. — "  The  town  lay  at  the  foot  of  a  hill,  which  we  climbed.'1'1     "  The  town  lay  at 
the  foot  of  the  hill  which  we  climbed.'1'' 

Whatever  modifies  a  substantive,  is  an  adjective  element. 

Ex. — "  Solomon's  Temple."  What  temple  i  "  David,  the  king  and  psalmist.""' 
"What  David?  "  The  land  of  palms."  What  land?  "A  hill  crowned  with  ma- 
jestic trees.''''  What  kind  of  hill  ?  "A  proposition  to  sell  the  farm."  What  pro- 
position ?  "  The  store  which  is  on  the  corner.'"  What  store  'i  "  A  request  that  you 
will  go  with  us"     What  kind  of  request  ? 

What  modifies,  may  itself  be  modified. 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  105 

A  noun  may  be  modified — 

1.  By  an  article.     "  Tte  man  is  intelligent." 

2.  By  an  adjective.     "A  beautiful  rose;"    "A  rose,  red  and  beautiful" 

3.  By  a  possessive.     "John's  horse;"    "My  slate." 

4.  By  an  appos'itive-     "  John  the  saddler ;"    "  The  poet  Milton." 

5.  By  a  participle,  with  what  belongs  to  it.     "  A  law  relating  to  taxes." 

6.  By  an  infinitive,  with  what  belongs  to  it.     "A  path  to  guide  us." 
1.  By  an  adjunct.     "  A  man  of  wisdom." 

8.  By  a  clause.  "  The  willow  which  stands  by  the  spring;"  "  A  request  that 
fjou  will  go  with  us  to-morrow." 

A  pronoun  may  be  modified  in  the  same  ways,  except  not  by  a  possessive. 
A  modified  word  has  frequently  several  modifications  at  once.         *»■ 

Exercises. 

Tlie  nouns  and  pronouns,  and  by  what  they  are  modified : — 

A  dewy  rose.  The  hind  of  oranges.  Lurking  evils.  Evils  lurking  near. 
Evils  that  lurk  near.  A  house  situated  on  the  river.  An  opportunity  to 
study.  The  sen's  beams.  Milton  the  poet.  The  deer  which  ran  out  of  the 
field,  and  which  I  shot.  A  bright  morning,  fresh  and  balmy,  that  refreshed  us 
all.  The  calumet  was  produced,  and  the  two  forlorn  powers  smoked  eternal 
friendship  between  themselves,  and  vengeance  upon  their  common  spoilers,  the 
Crows.  The  silence  of  the  night ;  the  calmness  of  the  sea ;  the  lambent  radi- 
ance of  the  moon,  trembling  on  the  surface  of  the  waves ;  and  the  deep  azure  of 
the  sky,  spangled  with  a  thousand  stars, — concurred  to  heighten  the  beauty  of 
the  scene.  With  loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater  man  restore  us,  and  regain  the 
blissful  seat.  Numerous  small  lakes  lie  inland,  round  which,  on  beaten  trails, 
roam  herds  of  red  deer.  Sweet  day,  so  cool,  so  calm,  so  bright,  the  bridal  of 
the  earth  and  sky. 


Ex.— "  The  house  was  sold  yesterday.11  "When  ?  "  The  house  contains  much 
urnlture."  Contains  what?  "  The  house  was  a  mere  cabin."  Was  what?  "  The 
lo-ge  fell,  crushing  its  inmates."     Fell  how?     "The  house  was  sold  to  pay  the 

■  ■ ."  Wh    ' 


"Whatever  modifies  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb,  or  may  be 
given  in  answer  to  an  interrogative  adverb,  or  as  the  complement  of 
a  predicate,  is  an  adverbial  element. 

9»v/>tr's  debts."    Wny?   "The  house  was  sold  because  the  owner  was  in  debt."   Why? 
•A.  modified  verb  may  be  a  finite  verb,  a  participle,  or  an  infinitive. 
A  verb  may  be  modified — 

1.  By  an  objective.     "  Men  build  houses."     "I  knew  it  TO  be  him." 

2.  By  a  predicate-nominative.     "  John  has  become  a  farmer." 

3.  By  an  adjective.     "  To  be  wise ;"    "  James  is  idle."* 

4.  By  an  adverb.     "  The  horse  ran  fast." 

5.  By  a  participle-^-.     "  The  stone  rolled  thundering  down  the  hill." 

6.  By  an  infinitive-\-.     **  I  have  concluded  to  remain  with  you." 

•  Owing  to  a  slight  radical  difference  in  the  modes  of  classifying,  there  is  sometimes  an 
apparent  incongruity  between  Parsing  and  Analyst*.  Thus,  in  parsing,  idle  is  referred  to 
James,  because  James  denotes  the  object  to  which  the  quality  belongs;  but,  in  analyzing, 
it  is  referred  to  is,  because  it  makes  with  is  the  predicate. 


106  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

7.  By  an  adjunct.     "  Apples  grow  on  trees." 

8.  By  a  clause.     "  She  thinks  he  is  rich?  "He  studies  that  he  may  learn." 

Exercises. 

The  verbs,  and  by  what  modified : — 

A  light  beaming  brightly.  He  writes  with  ease.  Cast  not  pearls  before 
swine.  He  became  a  partner.  She  is  industrious.  I  intend  to  go.  I  be- 
lieve ho  will  succeed  when  he  makes  a  vigorous  effort.  Among  the  flowering 
vines  is  one  deserving  of  particular  notice.  Each  flower  is  composed  of  six 
leaves  about  three  inches  in  length,  of  beautiful  crimson,  the  inside  spotted  with 
•white.  Its  leaves  of  tine  green  are  oval,  and  disposed  by  threes.  This  plant 
grows  upon  the  trees  without  attaching  itself  to  them.  When  it  has  reached  the 
topmost  branches,  it  descends  perpendicularly,  and,  as  it  continues  to  grow,  ex- 
tends from  tree  to  tree,  until  its  various  stalks  interlace  the  grove  like  the  rig- 
ging of  a  ship.  Nature  from  the  storm  shines  out  afresh.  Not  even  a  philoso- 
pher can  endure  the  toothache  patiently.  There  never  yet  were  hearts  or 
skies,  clouds  might  not  wander  through.  Chaucer  said,  "  If  a  man's  soul  is  in 
his  pocket,  he  should  be  punished  there." 


An  adjective  may  be  modified — 

1.  By  an  adverb.     "  She  is  foolishly  proud." 

2.  By  an  infinitive.     "  The  fruit  is  GOOD  to  eat." 

3.  By  an  adjunct.     "  He  is  careful  of  his  books." 

Exercises. 

TJie  adjectives,  and  by  what  modified : — 

She  was  uncommonly  beautiful.  He  is  poor  in  money,  but  rich  in  knowl- 
edge. '  Be  quick  to  hear,  but  slow  to  speak.  The  visions  of  my  youth  are 
past — too  bright,  too  beautiful  to  last.  How  dear  to  my  heart  are  the  scenes  of 
my  childhood  1  That  father,  faint  in  death  below,  his  voice  no  longer  heard. 
Wise  in  council  and  brave  in  war,  he  soon  became  the  most  successful  leader. 


An  adverb  may  be  modified — 

1.  By  an  adverb.     "  The  horse  ran  very  fast." 

2.  By  an  adjunct.     *  He  has  acted  inconsistently  with  his  professions." 

Exercises. 

The  adverbs,  and  by  what  modified : — 

It  is  very  badly  done.       She  studies  most  diligently.       You  can  not  como 
&>o  soon.       He  has  written  agreeably  to  your  directions. 


When  a  dependent  clause  is  abridged  into  a  phrase,  having  a 
nominative  absolute,  the  phrase  retains  the  modifying  sense  of  the 
clause. 

Some  grammarians  call  such  also  independent  phrases,  though  perhaps  need- 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  107 

Exercises. 

The  absolute  phrases,  and  what  they  modify : — 

My  trunk  being  packed,  I  sent  for  a  carriage.  (Sent  why  or  when  ?)  The 
sun  having  set,  we  returned  home.  His  father  having  been  imprisoned,  he  went 
to  rescue  him.      Along  he  sauntered,  his  musing  fancies  absorbing  his  whole  soul. 

Nominatives  independent,  or  the  phrases  containing  them,  and 
interjections,  are  independent  elements. 

Exercises 

Point  out  the  independent  words  or  phrases : — 

0  Liberty!  can  man  resign  thee,  once  having  felt  thy  glorious  flame  I  "Weep 
on  the  rocks  of  roaring  winds,  0  maid  of  Inistore !  0  Milan !  0  the  golden  bells 
which  oft  at  eve  so  sweetly  tolled !  Alas,  alas  1  fair  Ines,  she's  gone  into  the 
Wost.  The  land  of  the  heart  is  the  land  of  the  West ;  oho  boys  1  oho  boys ! 
oho!       Hist,   Romeo,   hist!       My  stars!    what  a  fish!       Ha,  ha,  ha!   a  fine 

gentleman,  truly. 

i 

Connecting  words  are  conjunctions,  prepositions,  relative  pronouns, 
and  some  adverbs.     Sometimes  phrases. 

Sometimes  connectives  are  omitted,  or  the  connection  is  sufficiently 
obvious«by  the  position  of  the  parts. 

Exercises, 

Point  out  the  connectives,  tell  of  what  hind,  and  what  they  connect : — 
The  sun  has  set,  and  the  moon  and  stars  begin  to  appear.  He  took  the  horse, 
which  was  neither  his  nor  mine  When  I  behold  a  fashionable  table  set  out,  I 
fancy  that  gouts,  fevers,  and  lethargies,  lie  in  ambush  among  the  dishes.  Ho 
that  knows  not  how  to  suffer,  has  no  greatness  of  soul.  Though  deep,  yet  clear ; 
though  gentle,  yet  not  dull.  The  moment  I  touched  it,  down  it  fell.  The 
deeper  the  water,  the  smoother  it  flows.  (Connected  by  the  correlative  sense  of 
the  clauses.)  To  be  happy  is  not  only  to  be  free  from  the  pains  and  diseases 
of  the  body,  but  also  from  the  cares  and  diseases  of  the  mind. 

Who  steals  my  purse,  steals  trash  ;  'tis  something,  nothing  ; 
'Twas  mine,  'tis  his,  and  has  been  slave  to  thousands: 
But  he  who  filches  from  me  my  good  name, 
Robs  me  of  that  which  not  enriches  him, 
And  makes  me  poor  indeed ! 
♦ 
Propositions  are  sometimes  elliptical  or  inverted. 

Exercises, 

Point  out  the  elliptical  parts,  supply  the  omitted  words,  and  restore  the  logical  ar~ 
rangement : — 

And  jokes  went  round,  and  careless  chat.  No  mate,  no  comrade,  Lucy 
know.  Oh,  how  damp,  and  dark,  and  cold  1  "  Then,  why  don't  you  go," 
said  I.  Pride  costs  us  more  than  hunger,  thirst,  and  cold.  The  woman 
(strange  circumstance !)  remained  obstinately  silent.  Out  of  debt,  out  of  dan- 
ger. On  the  cool  and  shady  hills,  coffee-shrubs  and  tamarinds  grow.  Alas  for 
love,  if  thou  wert  all,  and  naught  beyond,  0  earth !  Of  all  the  thousand  stirs 
not  one.      "  Sir,  I  can  not. — What,  my  lord? — Make  you  a  better  answer." 

Sentences,  propositions,  and  phrases,  may  be  analyzed  according 
to  the  following 


108  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

Formulas. 

A  sentence,  and  why  ;  simple,  complex,,  or  compound,  and  why  •  declarative,  inter* 
rogative,  imperative,  exclamatory,  or  a  composite  of,  and  why. 

.a  phrase;  the  chief  word  .    modified  hv 

au  independent  phrase ;   the  independent  substantive  •  y 

~  is  the  entire  «g£„  the  $^£Zgf**  is  ~ •  — *•  *  — 

— '•  «-  ««re  J^ .  the  $%££*£$**  are-,  connected  by-,  and  modified  by~. 

ANALYSIS     EXEMPLIFIED. 

Simple  Sentences  Analyzed. 

"  Sin  degrades." 

This  is  a  sentence,  it  is  a  thought  expressed  by  words ;  simple,  it  contains  but 
one  proposition ;  declarative,  it  expresses  a  declaration. 

Sin  is  the  subject,  because  it  denotes  that  of  which  something  is  affirmed ;  and 
degrades  is  the  predicate,  because  it  denotes  what  is  affirmed  of  sin.  Sin  is  also  the 
subject-nominative  ;  and  degrades,  the  predicate-verb. 


"  My  friend,  were  these  houses  and  lands  purchased  and  improved 
by  our  old  senator,  David  Barton  ?" 

This  is  a  sentence,  it  is  a  collection  of  words  making  complete  sense  ;  simple,  it 
contains  but  one  proposition,  or  but  one  subject  and  one  predicate  ;  interrogative, 
it  asks  a  question. 

My  friend  is  an  independent  phrase,  because  it  has  no  grammatical  connection 
with  the  rest  of  the  sentence.  Friend  is  the  principal  word,  and  it  is  modified  or 
limited  by  the  possessive  My. 

The  phrase  these  houses  and  lands,  is  the  subject,  because  it  denotes  that  of  which 
something  is  affirmed. 

The  phrase  were  purchased  and  improved  by  our  old  senator,  David  Barton,  is  the 
predicate,  because  it  denotes  what  is  affirmed  of  the  subject. 

Houses  and  lands  are  the  subject-nominatives,  connected  by  the  word  and,  and 
modified  by  the  adjective  these. 

Were  purchased  and  [ivere]  improved  are  the  predicate-verb3,  connected  by  and 
and  modified  by  the  phrase  by  our  old  senator,  David  Barton.  Our  old  senator  is 
modified  by  David  Barton ;  old  senator  is  modified  or  limited  by  the  possessive 
our  ;  and  senator  is  modified  by  old. 

Or  thus :  Was  is  the  copula ;  purchased  and  improved  are  the  attributes,  modi- 
fied by (as  before). 

Complex  Sentences  Analyzed. 

i:  A  man  who  saves  the  fragments  of  time,  will  accomplish  much 
in  the  course  of  his  life." 

This  is  a  sentence, — it  Is  a  thought  expressed  by  words,  and  comprised  betwecu 
two  full  pauses ;  complex,  it  contains  two  propositions,  of  which  one  depends  on  the 
other,  or  is  used  in  the  sense  of  an  adjective  ;  declarative,  it  expresses  a  declaration, 

A  man  who  saves  the  fragments  of  time,  is  the  entire  principal  subject,  be- 
cause it  denotes  that  of  which  something  is  affirmed ;  and  will  accomplish  much 
»•»  the  course  of  his  life,  is  the  entire  predicate,  because  it  denotes  what  is  af- 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  109 

firmed  of  the  subject.  Man  is  the  subject-nominative  ;  and  it  is  modified  by  the 
articled,  and  the  clause  who  saves  the  fragments  of  time :  will  accomplish  is  tho 
predicate-verb,  and  is  modified  by  the  object  much  and  the  adjunct  in  the  course  of 
lis  life. 

Who  saves  the  fragments  of  time,  is  a  proposition  connected  to  man,  by  the  rela- 
tive who,  as  a  subordinate  clause  performing  the  office  of  an  adjective. 

Who  is  the  entire  subject  and  the  subject-nominative :  saves  the  fragments  of 
time,  is  the  entire  predicate  ;  saves  is  the  predicate- verb,  and  is  modified  by  its  ob- 
ject fragments,  which  is  itself  modified  by  the  article  the  and  the  adjunct  of  time. 


"  What  pleases  the  palate,  is  not  always  good  for  tlie  constitut- 
ion." 

This  is  a  sentence,  it  is  a  collection  of  words  making  complete  sense  ;  complex,  it 
contains  two  propositions,  one  of  which  is  dependent  on  the  other ;  declarative,  it 
expresses  a  declaration. 

What  is  equivalent  to  that  which.  What,  or  that  which,  pleases  the  palate,  is  the 
entire  principal  subject ;  and  is  not  always  good  for  the  constitution,  is  the  entire 
predicate.  That  is  the  subject-nominative,  and  is  modified  by  the  clause  which 
pleases  the  palate  ;  is  is  the  predicate-verb,  and  is  modified  by  the  adjective  good, 
which  is  itself  modified  by  the  adjunct  for  the  constitution  and  the  adverb  always, 
and  always  is  modified  by  the  adverb  not. 

Which  pleases  the  palate,  is  a  proposition  connected  to  that,  by  the  relative  which, 
as  a  subordinate  clause  performing  the  office  of  an  adjective. 

Which  is  the  entire  subject  and  the  subject-nominative  ;  pleases  the  palate,  is  the 
entire  predicate  ;  pleases  is  the  predicate-verb,  modified  by  the  object  palate,  which 
is  itself  modified  by  the.  

["  Who  were  the  robbers  of  the  house,  has  not  yet  been  ascer- 
tained." 

This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence,  having  the  incorporated  clause,  Who  were 
the  robbers  of  the  house,  as  the  entire  subject  and  the  subject-nominative.  Has  not 
yet  been  ascertained,  is  the  entire  predicate,  etc. 

Who  were  the  robbers  of  the  house,  is  a  subordinate  clause  incorporated  into  the 
sentence  as  a  substantive  in  the  nominative  case.  Who  is  the  entire  subject  and 
the  subject-nominative,  etc.J 

"  My  son,  if  thou  wouldst  receive  my  words,  and  hide  my  com- 
mandments with. thee,  so  that  thou  mayst  gain  wisdom;  yea,  if  thoii 
wouldst  seek  it  as  silver,  and  search  for  it  as  hidden  treasure, — then 
live  in  the  fear  of  the  Lord,  and  find  the  knowledge  of  God." 

This  is  a  sentence,  it  is  a  collection  of  words  making  complete  sense ;  complex, 
it  consists  of  several  propositions,  some  of  which  are  dependent ;  a  composite  of 
declarative,  or  conditional  declarative,  and  imperative  clauses,  or  rather  an  imperative 
eentence,  for  its  chief  aim  is  to  express  a  command  or  an  exhortation. 

"  My  son," — 

This  is  an  independent  phrase,  because  it  has  no  grammatical  connection  with 
<he  rest  of  the  sentence,  etc.    (Proceed  as  before.) 

"  ]f 'thou  wouldst  receive  my  words,  and  hide  my  commandments  with  thee,"— 


110  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

This  is  a  proposition  connected  as  a  dependent  clause,  by  the  conjunction  if,  to 
ttie  last  clause  of  the  sentence,  etc.  (Analyze  these  clauses  in  the  same  way  as  the 
clauses  and  sentences  above  were  analyzed. ) 

u  So  that  thou  mayst  gain  wisdom  ;"— 
This  is  a  clause  dependent  on  the  clause  preceding  it,  to  which  it  is  connected 
by  so  that,  etc. 
*  Yea,  if  thou  wouldst  seek  it  as  silver,  and  search  for  it  as  hidden  treasure ;" — 
This  is  a  clause  coordinate  with  the  member  preceding  it,  to  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  the  emphatic  yea  ;  and  dependent  on  the  last  clause  of  the  sentence,  to 
which  it  i3  connected  by  if. 

"  As  silver,'''1 —  "  As  for  hidden  treasure ;" — 

As  silver  is  put  for  as  you  would  seek  for  silver,  and  is  therefore  a  clause  con- 
nected to  the  preceding  predicate  by  as  as  a  subordinate  clause,  performing  the 
office  of  an  adverb  of  manner,  etc. 

"  Then  live  in  the  fear  of  the  Lord,  and  find  the  knowledge  of  God" 
This  is  the  principal  or  independent  clause,  connected  by  then,  to  the  rest  of  the 
sentence.     Thou,  understood,  is  the  entire  subject  and  the  subject-nominative,  etc. 


Note. — Long  sentences  are  generally  most  easily  analyzed,  by  commencing  at 
the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  and  taking  not  more  than  one  clause,  independent 
word  or  phrase,  at  a  time,  and  proceeding  thus  until  the  entire  sentence  is  ex- 
hausted. It  is  generally  better  to  defer  dependent  clauses,  till  their  principal 
clauses  are  analyzed. 

"There  is  strong  reason  to  suspect  that  some  able  Whig  poli- 
ticians, who  thought  it  dangerous  to  relax,  at  that  moment,  the 
laws  against  political  offences,  but  who  could  not,  without  incur- 
ring the  charge  of  inconsistency,  declare  themselves  adverse  to 
relaxation,  had  conceived  a  hope  that  they  might,  by  fomenting  the 
dispute  about  the  court  of  the  lord  high  steward,  defer  for  at  least  a 
year  the  passing  of  a  bill  which  they  disliked,  and  yet  could  not 
decently  oppose." — Macaulay. 

Analysis. — This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence.  There  is  strong  reason  to 
suspect,  is  the  principal  clause,  of  which  strong  reason  to  suspect,  is  the  entire  sub- 
ject ;  and  There  is,  the  entire  predicate ;  reason  is  the  subject-nominative,  modified 
by  the  adjective  strong,  and  by  the  infinitive  to  suspect  performing  the  office  of  an 
adjective ;  is  is  the  predicate-verb,  modified  by  There. 

That  some  able  Whig  politicians  had  conceived  a  hope,  is  the  next  simple  declara- 
tive clause,  performing  the  office  of  a  noun  in  the  objective  case  governed  by 
to  suspect,  to  which  it  is  connected  by  that.  Some  able  Whig  politicians,  is  the  entire 
subject ;  and  had  conceived  a  hope,  is  the  entire  predicate  :  politicians  is  the  subject- 
nominative,  modified  by  the  adjectives  some,  able,  and  Whig  ;  and  had  conceived  is 
the  predicate-verb,  modified  by  the  object  hope,  which  is  itself  modified  by  the 
article  a. 

Who  thought  it  dangerous,  etc.,  (read  to  but,)  is  a  subordinate  relative  clause, 
connected  to  politicians  by  who,  and  performing  the  office  of  an  adjective.  Who  is 
the  entire  subject  and  subject-nominative  ;  thought  it  dangerous,  etc.,  is  the  entire 
predicate,  of  which  thought  is  the  predicate-verb,  modified  by  the  object  it,  which  ia 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  Ill 

modified  by  dangerous,  and  the  apposltive  to  relax,  etc.,  of  which  to  relax  is  modi- 
fied by  the  adjunct  at  that  moment,  an  adverbial  element  whose  principal  word  is 
moment,  modified  by  that,  and  connected  to  the  verb  by  at;  to  relax  is  further  modi- 
fied by  the  object  the  laws,  and  laws  is  modified  by  the  adjunct  against  political 
offences,  performing  the  office  of  an  adjective. 

But  who  cauid  not,  without,  etc.  (read  to  had),  is  a  relative  clause  also  modifying 
politicians,  and  connected  as  a  coordinate  clause  to  the  clause  before  it,  by  the 
adversative  conjunction  but.  Who  is  the  entire  subject  and  the  suoject-nominative ; 
could  not,  without  incurring,  etc.,  is  the  entire  predicate,  of  which  could  declare  is 
the  predicate-verb,  modified  by  the  negative  adverb  not,  the  adverbial  adjunct 
without  incurring  the  charge  of  inconsistency,  the  object  themselves,  which  is  modi- 
fied by  the  adjective  adverse,  and  adverse  is  modified  by  the  adverbial  adjunct  to 
relaxation. 

T/iat  they  might,  etc.  (to  which),  is  the  next  simple  clause, — dependent,  con- 
nected to  hope  by  that,  and  performing  the  office  of  an  adjective.  T^iey  is  the  entire 
subject  and  the  subject-nominative ;  might  defer,  etc.,  is  the  entire  predicate,  of 
Which  might  defer  is  the  predicate- verb,  modified  by  the  adverbial  elements  by  fo- 
menting the  dispute  about  the  court  of  the  lord  high  steward '(means),  for  a  year  (time), 
and  the  objective  element  the  passing  of  a  bill ;  fomenting  is  joined  to  might  defer 
by  by  and  modified  by  dispute,  dispute  is  modified  by  the  and  about  the  court,  court 
is  joined  to  disputeby  about  and  modified  by  the  and  of  the  lord  high  steward,  lord 
is  joined  to  court  by  of  and  modified  by  the  and  the  appositive  high  steward ;  for  a 
year  is  modified  by  the  adverbial  phrase  at  least ;  passing  is  modified  by  the  and 
the  adjunct  of  a  bill. 

Wltich  they  disliked,  etc.  (to  the  end),  is  a  relative  clause, — declarative,  depend- 
ent, connected  to  bill  by  which,  and  performing  the  office  of  an  adjective.  They  is 
the  entire  subject  and  the  subject-nominative,  disliked  and  could  oppose  are  the 
predicate- verbs,  connected  by  and  yet,  and  modified,  both,  by  the  objective  which, 
and  the  latter  verb  by  the  adverb  decently,  which  is  itself  modified  by  the  nega- 
tive adverb  not. 

The  sentence  consists  of  six  clauses,  very  finely  bound  together,  of  which  the 
subject  of  the  principal  clause  is  branched  out  into  a  cluster  of  dependent  clauses. 
— The  student  will  seldom  find  a  sentence  more  difficult  to  analyze. 


Paragraphs  or  sentences  may  be  briefly  analyzed  by  simply 
pointing  out  the  clauses  or  propositions  in  their  logical  order. 
Parsing,  also,  may  be  much  abridged. 

Ex.  "  Man  bath  his  daily  work  of  body  or  mind 

Appointed,  which  declares  his  dignity, 
And  the  regard  of  Heaven  on  all  his  ways ; 
"While  other  animals  inactive  range, 
And  of  their  doings  God  takes  no  account." — Milton. 
Man  hath  his  daily  work  of  body  or  mind  appointed. 
Which  declares  his  dignity,  and  the  regard  of  Heaven  on  all  his  ways. 
While  other  animals  ran^e  inactive. 
And  God  takes  no  account  of  their  doings. 
Man  is  a  common  noun,  in  the  nominative  case  to  hath  ;  hath  is  an  irregular 
transitive  verb  agreeing  with  Man  ;  his  is  a  personal  pronoun,  relating  to  Man  as 
its  antecedent,  and  possessing  work,  etc. 

J03P-  For  exercises, use  the  phrases  and  sentences  on  pp.  73—87,  and  the  poem  on  p.  131 ;  and,  of  ex* 
ampk-s  to  be  written  on  the  blackboard  and  analyzed,  the  teacher  will  find  au  abundance  in  **>e  Com- 
prehensive Grammar. 


112  ANALYSIS    OF   SENTENCES. 


THOUGHT    AND    ITS    EXPRESSION.* 

We  think,  or  have  thoughts. 

We  wish  to  express  our  thoughts,  or  to  let  other  people  know  them. 

We  therefore  put  them  into  words,  and  speak  or  write  them. 

Every  thought  implies  at  least  two  things;  something  to  think  of,  and  some- 
thing thought  of  it. 

The  former  we  denote  by  a  subject ;  the  latter,  by  a  predicate. 

We  notice,  in  the  world,  objects,  actions,  and  qualities,  nearly  all  of  which 
exist  in  classes,  and  some  in  degrees. 

We  notice  the  thing  called  time,  and  the  thing  called  space,  which  two  hold 
or  contain  all  other  things  whatsoever. 

In  the  operations  of  things,  we  notice  manner,  cause,  consequence. 

We  also  notice,  chiefly  in  ourselves,  feeling,  will,  knowledge,  ignorance. 

Some  of  these  things  must  be  found  in  every  thought ;  and  they  are  all  expressed 
by  a  great  variety  of  words,  phrases,  and  clauses. 

The  subject  or  the  predicate,  while  it  refers  to  the  same  class,  may  often  be 
denoted  by  a  single  word.     (Simple  subject  or  predicate.) 

Ex.— "  She  sings ;"       "  They  sing."       "Man  errs;"       "Men  err." 

When  either  refers  to  two  or  more  classes,  two  or  more  words  must  be  used 
to  express  it.     (Compound  subject  or  predicate.) 

Ex. — "  The  rose  or  the  lily  |  blooms  and  fades.'1'1      "  Hoses  and  lilies  \  bloom  and  fade." 

To  denote  what  is  only  an  occasional  act  or  state,  we  must  also  frequently 
use  several  words  to  express  it. 

Ex — "  That  they  should  have  endeavored  to  crush  so  great  a  genius,  is  surprising." 
"  The  panther  gnashed  his  fangs  in  blood  and  foamy 

"Within  the  same  class  we  generally  make  the  same  word  answer  all  our  purposes,  hut  we 
sometimes  vary  its  form ;  as,  Mill,  mills;  I,  we  ;  write,  wi  itest ;  great,  greater.  This  change 
is  called  inflection.  When  we  pass  out  of  the  class  to  a  related  class,  we  frequently  still  re- 
tain the  word,  but  with  a  slight  change;  as,  Mill,  miller;  write,  writer;  blue,  dark-blue. 
This  change  is  called  derivation. 

As  there  are  many  of  almost  every  class,  yet  as  scarcely  any  two  have  the  same 
place,  time,  or  qualities,  we  often  add  these,  to  show  precisely  what  object,  net. 
or  state  we  mean.  These  added  things  are  called  qualities  or  circumstances  ;  and 
the  words,  phrases,  or  clauses,  denoting  them,  may  be  called  modifications. 

Hence,  we  may  distinguish  unmodified  subject-nominatives  and  predicate-verbs 
from  modified.     Either  class  may  be  simple  or  compound. 

Ex.—"  Soldiers  were  marching."  "  The  young  soldiers  of  New  York  who  enlisted 
last  year,  were  marching,  this  morning,  in  magnificent  array,  to  the  Battery." 

When  some  form  of  the  verb  be  is  the  predicate-verb,  the  predicate  13  some- 
times analyzed  into  copula  and  attribute,  or  into  copula,  attribute,  and  modifi- 
cations. 

Ex—"  The  sky  is  serene."  "  David  was  king.'"  "  Grain,  meat,  and  vege- 
tables      are        brought        daily        down  the  river." 

The  proposition  may  vary  according  J;o  the  speaker's  relations  to  what  the 
■ubject  denotes.     These  are  the  Persons ;  the  first,  the  second,  and  tho  third. 

Ex. — "  I  am  speaking."     "  Thou  art  speaking."     "  He  is  speaking." 

The  proposition  may  vary  according  as  we  consider  one  or  more  than  one  of 
the  same  class.     This  variation  lies  in  the  Numbers. 

Ex.—"  I  am  speaking  ;"  "  We  are  speaking."  "  The  squirrel  climbs  trees  ;"  "  Squir- 
rels climb  trees." 

*  This  section  is  to  be  studied  rather  than  memorized.  It  aims  to  give  an  inside  view 
of  thought  and  language,— to  show  the  outbranchings  of  language  from  the  germ  of  thought 
within,  or  the  connection  between  the  mind  and  the  outer  world  with  special  reference  to 
Grammar. 


ANALYSIS    OF   SENTENCES.  113 

The  proposition  may  vary  according  as  one  class  is  referred  to  or  more  than 
one.     We  thus  have  simple  or  compound  subjects  and  predicates. 

Ex. — "  Wheat  grows."     M  Wheat  and  barley  grow  and  ripen." 

The  proposition  may  vary  to  express  time.  This  shows  itself  in  six  forms  in 
the  Tenses ;  and  must  otherwise  be  expressed,  like  the  other  circumstances,  by 
modifying  words,  phrases,  or  clauses. 

Ex. — "I  write;  I  wrote;  I  shall  write;  I  have  written ;"  etc.  "I  write  daily.'1''  "I 
wrote  last  week.'1''    "  I  write  when  I  have  the  opportunity."    "  I  wrote  where  you  are  sitting." 

The  proposition  may  vary  according  to  the  relations  of  the  subject  to  the  act 
or  state,  the  speaker's  knowledge  or  will,  or  the  dependence  of  events.  These 
variations  show  themselves  in  Moods. 

Ex. — "I  wrote."  "  I  should  have  written."  u  It  may  rain."  "  Write  to  him."  "If 
it  rain,  we  shall  have  good  crops." 

The  proposition  may  vary  according  to  the  speaker's  knowledge,  doubts,  will, 
or  feelings;  that  is,  be  either  dtclarative,  interrogative,  imperative,  or  exclamatory. 
Seep.  71. 

A  proposition  may  itself  make  a  sentence. 

Ex. — "  Glory  is  like  a  circle  in  the  water." 

A  proposition  may  make  only  a  part  of  a  sentence.  If  it  does  not  modify,  it 
is  called  coordinate;  if  it  modifies,  subordinate. 

Ex. — "The  last  load  of  grain  is  brought  home,  |  and  the  tables  are  spread  for  the  harvest 
feast."    "  The  mind  that  broods  o'er  guilty  woes,  is  like  a  scorpion  girt  by  fire." 

Two  or  more  clauses  forming  a  distinct  part  of  a  compound  sentence,  may  be  termed  a  member ; 
and  so  may  the  remaining  clause,  or  group  of  clauses. 

To  a  proposition  may  be  added  an  independent  word  or  phrase  denoting  the 
person  or  thing  addressed. 

Ex.—'4  Gentlemen,  your  whole  concern  should  be  to  do  your  duty,  regardless  of  con- 
sequences. 

A  proposition  may  sometimes  be  abridged  to  a  mere  phrase. 
Ex. — "  When  the  lesson  had  been  learned,  we  went  to  play"=77i0  lesson  being  learned,  wo 
went  to  play.    "  I  came  that  I  might  see  the  show"— I  came  to  see  the  show. 

Sometimes  a  phrase  or  an  entire  clause,  as  well  as  a  single  word,  may  be 
used  in  the  sense  of  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb. 

Ex. — "  The  boy  who  is  studious,  will  learn"  —  The  studious  boy  will  learn.  "  He  begins 
his  work  be/ore  the  sun  rises'"—  lie  begins  his  work  before  sunrise  =  He  begins  his  work 
early.  "  It  is  well  known  that  he  is  incompetent"  —  That  he  is  incompetent,  is  well  known  =. 
His  being  incompetent  is  well  known  —  His  incompetence  is  well  known. 

Sometimes  a  phrase  or  an  entire  clause  may  be  modified  or  affected  like  a 
single  word. 

Ex. — "A  great  many  valuable  books."  Here  each  word,  beginning  with  "A,"  modifies 
all  that  comes  after  it.  M  He  was  so  young,  so  generous,  so  every  thing  that  we  are  apt  to 
like  in  a  young  man."    "  You  study  grammar  fob  your  improvement  in  language." 

To  express  the  meaning  with  emphasis,  or  greater  force,  we  sometimes  omit 
words,  or  change  the  order  of  the  words. 

Ex.— "Tyrants  no  more  their  savage  nature  kept"— Tyrants  kept  their  savage  nature  no 
more.  "  Far-fetched  and  dear-bought  is  for  ladies  "—  Wlutt  is  far-fetched  and  dear-bought, 
is  for  ladies. 

"We  spell  words ;  pronounce  words ;  derive  words  from  others,  classify  them, 
and  prepare  them  for  sentences;  put  words  together  so  as  to  make  sentences;  and 
improve  sentences,  chiefly  by  utterance,  so  as  to  make  them  most  agreeable  and 
forcible.  Hence  Grammar  may  be  divided  into  Orthog' raphy,  Pronunciation, 
Etymology,  Syntax,  and  Prosody. 

The  syntax  of  sentences  is  best  considered  under  four  heads :  relation,  gov- 
ernment, agreement  (or  concord),  and  position.  The  relation  of  words  is  their 
reference  to  one  another  according  to  the  sense  j  government  is  the  power  which 


114  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

one  word  has  over  another  in  causing  its  case,  person,  number,  or  some  other 
property ;  agreement  is  the  correspondence  of  one  word  with  another  in  case,  per- 
son, number,  or  some  other  property ;  and  position  refers  to  the  place  which  a 
word  occupies  in  reference  to  other  words.' 

THE    SIX    ELEMENTS. 

All  discourse  may  be  divided  into  paragraphs ;  paragraphs  into  sen- 
tences; sentences  into  clauses  or  propositions;  and  propositions  into 
phrases  and  words. 

All  sentences  may  be  most  conveniently  analyzed,  by  resolving  them 
into  six  elements ;  two  principal  elements,  two  modifying  elements,  a  con- 
necting element,  and  an  independent  element. 

The  two  principal  elements  are  the  subject-nominatives  and  the  predi- 
cate-verbs; both  of  which  are  easily  distinguished,  by  their  form  and 
sense,  from  the  other  parts. 

The  modifying  elements  are  either  adjective  elements  or  adverbial  ele- 
ments. 

Any  word,  phrase,  or  clause,  that  modifies  a  noun,  is  an  adjective  ele- 
ment.    It  shows  of  what  kind  or  nature  the  object  is. 

Any  word,  phrase,  or  clause,  that  modifies  a  verb,  an  adjective,  an 
adverb,  or  an  entire  predicate,  is  an  adverbial  element.  It  generally  shows 
where,  when,  how,  why,  ivhat,  in  lohat  respect,  to  what  extent,  or  expresses 
negation.  Its  chief  use  is,  to  make  with  the  predicate- verb  the  predicate. 
For  the  sake  of  greater  precision,  the  objective  elements  may  be  distin- 
guished, as  such,  from  the  other  adverbial  elements. 

The  connecting  elements  are  the  conjunctions,  the  prepositions,  some 
adverbs,  and  the  relative  pronouns.  Connectives  may  perform,  addition- 
ally, some  office  in  the  parts  to  which  they  belong;  they  may  be  expressed 
or  omitted;  they  may  be  used  singly  or  in'pairs;  they  may  consist  of  one 
word  each,  or  of  a  phrase. 

The  independent  element  may  be  a  substantive  denoting  what  is  ad- 
dressed, or  what  is  the  mere  subject  of  thought;  or  it  may  be  an  interjec- 
tion ;  or  it  may  be  something  that  represents  an  entire  sentence,  or  stands 
as  the  fragment  of  a  sentence. 

A  part  used  singly,  is  called  a  simple  element ;  a  pair  or  series  of  parts  is 
called  a  compound  element;  and  a  part  that  is  modified  by  another,  makes  with 
it  a  complex  element. 

Every  proposition  or  clause  should  be  separated,  as  soon  as  possible, 
into  its  grammatical  subject  and  predicate ;  and  all  the  dependent  parts 
should  then  be  referred,  according  to  the  sense,  to  the  one  or  to  the  other. 

What  is  inverted  or  elliptical,  should  generally  be  analyzed  as  if  it  stood 
in  its  logical  order  or  fullness. 

It  is  sometimes  not  easy  to  determine  whether  an  adjunct,  an  adjective,  or  an  ad- 
jective phrase :  a  participle  or  a  participial  phrase;  an  infinitive  or  an  infinitive 
phrase, — should  be  referred  to  the  subject  or  to  the  predicate.  Consider  carefully 
what  constitutes  the  whole  of  that  of  which  the  affirmation  is  made  ;  next  consider 
what  constitutes  the  whole  of  that  Which  is  strictly  affirmed.  When  even  this 
mode  of  judging  is  inadequate,  it  will  probably  be  a  matter  of  little  consequence, 
to  which  part  the  modification  is  referred. 

How  may  discourse  be  divided?  How  may  sentences  be  analyzed?  Describe  cacb  kind 
of  elements.     What  else  is  said  of  analysis  ? 


ANALYSIS    OF   SENTENCES.  115 

COMPLEX  AND  COMPOUND  SENTENCES. 

TVote. — The  ideas  entertained  about  Analysis  are  so  various  that  they  have  rot  ns  yrt 
settled  down  into  a  uniform  system.  What  we  have  taught  on  this  subject  from  page  102,  is 
in  accordance  with  what  is  now  regardeu  as  the  most  approved  system.  Many  grammarians, 
especially  the  older  ones,  divide  all  sentences  into  but  two  classes, — simple  and  compound  ; 
or  else  they  regard  all  complex  sentences  as  compound,  but  not  all  compound  sentences  as 
complex,  using  compound  as  a  generic  term  to  complex.  The  following  views,  however, 
which  now  prevail  most  in  Great  Britain,  are  more  exact  and  philosophical,  and  will  probably 
give  better  satisfaction  to  those  who  are  in  the  habit  of  thinking  closely  upon  the  structure 
of  language.  (Both  the  older  and  the  more  recent  mode  of  classifying  sentences,  are  6hown 
in  the  Comprehensive  Grammar      See  pp.  3,  58,  68 ) 

There  runs  through  discourse,  more  or  less,  a  serial  sense, 
and  also  a  modified  sense.  The  former  gives  us  compound 
structure;  and  the  latter,  complex  structure. 

All  sentences  that  have  two  or  more  distinct  predicates, 
are  either  complex  or  compound. 

A  complex  sentence  contains  but  one  principal  clause,  with 
one  or  more  dependent  clauses. 

The  dependent  clause  is  combined  with  the  principal  clause,  in  the  sense  of  a 
NOUN,  an  ABJECTIVE,  or  an  AD  VERB,  or  else  simply  depends  on  it  for  com- 
plete sense.  The  subordinate  or  dependent  clauses  which  mane  with  other  clauses 
complex  members  or  sentences,  comprise  the  relative  clauses,  the  adverbial  clauses, 
the  correlative  clauses,  aud  generally  the  conjunctive  clauses  that  express  compar- 
ison, condition,  concession,  exception,  cause,  consequence,  or  purpose.     See  p.  65. 

What  is  grammatically  dependent,  may  be  logically  principal  ;  that  is,  what  is 
dependent  in  construction,  may  be  most  important  in  sense  ;  as,  "  When  the  sun 
rises,  the  birds  sing."  "  To  think  always  accurately,  is  a  great  accomplishment." 

A  compound  sentence  contains  two  or  more  principal  co- 
ordinate clauses. 

Such  clauses  are  generally  connected  by  conjunctions  of  the  first  three  classes 
(see  p.  65),  or  they  have  no  connective. 

Complex  and  compound,  as  here  used,  are  entirely  distinct :  so  that  a  sentence  may  be 
complex  without  bjing  compound,  or  compound  without  being  complex. 

A  complex  member  consists  of  two  or  more  clauses  combined 
like  those  of  a  complex  sentence,  and  forms  only  a  part  of  a  sen- 
tence. 

A  compound  member  consists  of  two  or  more  coordinate 
clauses,  and  forms  only  a  part  of  a  sentence. 

A  phrase  whose  chief  word  is  modified  by  another  phrase, 
may  be  called  complex. 

The  subject  is  the  nucleus  of  the  sentence,  round  which  every  thing  else  clus- 
ters, and  which  is,  in  fact,  modified  by  every  thing  else,  even  by  the  predicate-verb 
itself,  with  all  its  appendages.  Hence  some  grammarians  call  the  entire  predicate 
the  attribute  of  the  subject.  If,  then,  we  regard  dependent  clauses  always  as  mod- 
ifying clauses,  we  shall  have  the  strange  anomaly,  when  clauses  are  used  as  sub- 
jects, of  making  the  subject  modify  the  predicate.  (See  p.  120.)  But  the  above, 
definition  of  a  complex  sentence,  avoids  the  difficulty. 

The  skeleton  of  thought  which  underlies  the  full-robed  sentence,  may  bo 
briefly  exhibited  thus  : — 


Which  one?      )  (Is  what? 

How  many  ?      J-Subject.-]  Does  what  ? 
Of  what  kind  ?  )  (  Suffers  what  ? 


When?     "Where? 
How?     Why? 
As  to  what? 


116  ANALYSIS    OF   SENTENCES. 

SUMMARY    OF    ANALYSIS. 

I^i  tarsal  aire,  or  discourse,  may  be  divided  into  prose  and  verse, 
prose  and  blank- verse  may  often  be  conveniently  divided  into  paragraphs  ; 
other  verse,  into  stanzas  ;  and  all  prose  and  verse,  of  whatever  kind,  may 
be  resolved  into  sentences. 

Sentences  are  either  simple,  complex,  or  compound;  declarative, 
interrogative,  imperative,  exclamatory,  or  composites  of  these;  and  may 
be  resolved  into  propositions  or  clauses. 

If  long,  sentences  may  often  be  conveniently  divided  first  into  members, 
and  then  into  clauses. 

Propositions  or  clauses  are  either  independent  or  dependent; 
declarative,  interrogative,  imperative,  or  exclamatory ;  and  .may  be  re- 
solved into  connectives,  subjects,  and  predicates. 

Subjects  and  Predicates  are  either  simple  or  compound,  and 
unmodified  or  modified. 

For  the  purpose  of  descending  still  farther  in  analysis,  all  discourse  may 
be  considered  as  consisting  of  the  following  six  elements,  which  may 
be  again  subdivided  into  various  parts  : — 

Principal  Elements. 

Subject:  Noun,  pronoun,  verbal  noun  or  phrase,  clause. 

Predicate* :  Finite  verb. 
The  unmodified  (or  grammatical)  subject  or  predicate,  with  all  its  modi- 
fications, may  be  called  the  entire  (modified,  or  logical)  subject  or  predicate. 

Modifying"  Elements ;  Modifiers,  or  Modifications.    See  foot-note,  p.  118. 

Adjective. — A  Noun  or  Pronoun  may  be  modified — 1.  by  an  ar- 
ticle ;  2.  by  an  adjective  or  an  adjective  phrase  ;  3.  by  a  possessive  ;  4.  by 
an  appositive  or  an  appositive  phrase  or  clause ;  5.  by  a  participle  or  a 
participial  phrase;  6.  by  an  infinitive  or  an  infinitive  phrase;  7.  by  an 
adjunct ;  8.  or  by  a  clause,  sometimes  abridged  into  a  phrase. 

Adverbial. — A  Finite  Verb,  a  Participle,  or  an  Infinitive,  may 
be  modified — 1.  by  an  object,  sometimes  a  phrase  or  clause;  2,  by  a  predi- 
cate nominativer  sometimes  a  phrase  or  clause ;  3.  by  an  adjective  or  an 
adjective  phrase ;  4.  by  an  adverb  ;  5  by  a  participle  or  a  participial 
phrase;  6.  by  an  infinitive  or  an  infinitive  phrase;  7.  by  an  adjunct; 
8.  by  a  clause,  sometimes  abridged  into  a  phrase. 

An  Adjective  may  be  modified  by  an  adverb,  an  adjunct,  an  infinitive  or  an 
infinitive  phrase,  or  a  clause. 

An  Adverb  may  be  modified  by  an  adverb  or  an  adjunct. 

A  modifying  element  may  make  a  part  of  either  the  entire  subject  or  the  entire  predicate ; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  principal  elements  also  enter  into  the  modifying  clauses. 

There  are  also  grades  of  modification ;  that  is,  a  part  which  modifies,  may  itself 
be  modified,  and  this  modifying  part  may  also  be  modified,  and  so  on. 

Connecting  Element :  Conjunctions,  conjunctive  adverbs,  relative 
pronouns,  prepositions. 

Independent  Element :  Interjections,  nominatives  independent 
Sometimes  a  word  or  phrase  that  represents  a  proposition. 

*  Predicate,  Copula,  and  Attribute.— About  predicate  there  is  great 
diversity  of  opinion.     Some  writers  apply  the  term  to  the  predicate  -verb  only ;  some,  to  all 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 


lit 


SYMBOLS  TO  SHOW  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES. 

The  eye  is  the  most  powerful  of  the  five  senses.  The  more  completely,  therefore,  any 
thing  can  be  brought  under  its  dominion,  the  more  easily  it  is  mastered.  Locke,  in  his  great 
work  on  the  Human  Understanding,  recommends  the  reducing  of  abstractions  to  symbols  that 
may  be  easily  grasped  by  the  eye.  It  is  well  known  what  wonderful  power  has  been  acquired 
over  the  abstractions  of  quantity,  by  means  of  the  few  symbols  and  axioms  of  algebra;  and 
how  completely  the  almost  infinite  world  of  music  is  subjected  by  means  of  a  few  represent- 
ative marks. 

Attempts  have  been  frequently  made,  both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  to  present  the 
construction  of  sentences  to  the  eye,  by  means  of  diagrams  or  symbols.  Mr.  F  A.  P.  Bar- 
nard, many  years  ago, devised  a  system  that  seems  to  have  been  the  germ  of  Mr.  Clark's  sys- 
tem. Dr.  Morell,  of  London,  and  several  writers  in  our  educational  journals,  have  tried 
systems  in  letters.  All  of  these  systems,  however,  are  defective,  and  seem  to  be  too  com- 
plicated and  mechanical. 

What  we  want,  is  a  brief,  simple,  and  comprehensive  system,  by  which  the  pupil  can 
easily  show  to  his  teacher  at  a  glance,  what  he  Knows  of  the  construction  of  the  sentences 
which  have  been  assigned  to  him  as  a  task.  I  have  therefore  devised  the  following 
mode  of  writing  out  algebraically  the  construction  of  sentences : — 

d,  adjunct. 
And  let  d  —  po,  etc. 
s,  possessive, 
c,  appositive — explana- 
tory or  e  mphatic 

0,  object. 

t,  predicate-nominative, 
p,  participle. 

1,  abso  I  ute  phrase ;  i.  e., 
nom.  absol.  with  participle. 

And  let  1  ■=■  n  p,  etc. 

i,  infinitive. 

j,  (j  oin,)  connective. 

Repeat  for  compound. 

',  ",  '",  degrees  of  sub- 
ordination below  the 
first  or  primary. 


First  Class. 

S,  sentence. 

M,  member. 

P,  proposition. 

0,  independent  or  prin- 
cipal clause. 

c,  dependent  clause. 

c',c",  c'",  degrees  of  depend 
ence  below  the  first. 

N,  subject-nominative,  or 
unmodified  subject 

V,  predicate-verb,  or  un 
modified  predicate. 

N™,  abridged  expression 
for  m  odified  subject. 

Vm,  abridged   expression 


X,  independent  word   or 

phrase. 
Repeat  for  compound,  ex- 
cept S. 

Second  Class. 
+  ,  predication. 
=,  equivalence. 
1 1  II »  III  >  separation,  less  or 
greater; 
or  use  the  punctuation 
marks  of  the  sentence  itself. 
(     ),  supplied  matter. 
oo,  placed  over  to  show, 
if  necessary,  inversion. 
Third  Class. 
r,  article. 

a,  adjective. 

b,  advert. 


for  m  odified  predicate 
By  referring  to  pp.  105-3, 11T-29,  the  reader  can  see  that  these  symbols  exhaust  the  subject- 

If  at  any  time  it  should  appear  necessary,  any  of  these  symbols  can  be  made  to 
show  the  relations  of  others,  by  being  placed,  as  superiors,  over  them.  Thus : 
ca  —  adjective  clause  ;  ct>,  adverbial  clause ;  c°,  objective  clause ;  cl,  predicate- 
porainative  clause ;  i°,  objective  infinitive ;  db,  adverbial  adjunct;  NJ,  connecting 
nominative,  i,  e.,  relative  pronoun. 

Ex.— "  Large  streams  from  little  fountains  flow."   S  ==  P=  a  N  +  V  d.  d  ==  p  a  o. 

The  stanza  on  page  130,  an  excellent  specimen  for  illustration,  would  stand 
thus  in  our  symbols  : — 

S=M;  M»Cc;Cc  =  N  +  V«;  N  +'  Ym  —  N  +  Vraa'tc;  N  +  Vraatc. 
ji  — N  +  Vd.     d=paa/o.      c=saN  +  VdjVsaobb.    d=po. 

From  this  example  we  see,  that  the  teacher  may  require  of  his  pupils  first  grade 
analysis  only,  which  goes  not  below  clauses ;  or  second  grade,  which  shows  sub- 
jects and  predicates  and  dependent  clauses,  and  which  may  be  abridged  ;  or  third 
ffrade^  which  shows  all  the  minutiae. 

We  have  not  room  here  to  exemplify  this  subject  at  large.  See  pp.  118-28.  The  above 
system  seems  to  us  a  good  one — one  that  can  be  made  really  useful  in  schools.     It  can  be 

that  is  said  of  the  subject ;  and  some  of  the  old  logicians  apply  it  to  what  follows  the  verb  be, 
-v  to  what  is  now  generally  called  t>e  attribute.   "The  predicate- verb  be  is  often  called  the 

6 


\  j  3  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

learned  in  a  few  honrs  ;  the  symbols  are  sufficient  to  exhaust  the  subject,  or  to  reach  all  son 
tences  whatsoever :  the  longest  sentences  can  be  thus  analyzed  in  a  line  or  two,  for  which 
diagrams  or  words  would  require  pages  ;  the  analysis  can  be  shown  by  descending  eteps,  or 
by  a  regular  descent  from  the  greatest  parts  to  the  least,  with  all  compound  structure  a?id 
every  degree  of  subordination ;  the  symbols  will  show  of  what  the  sentence  consists,  and 
their  position  will  generally  be  sufficient  to  show  the  relation  of  the  parts;  the  plus  maris 
readily  show  the  predications,  or  ganglia,  of  the  sentence :  one  large  P  on  the  right,  at  once 
shows  that  the  sentence  is  simple  ;  one  large  C,  that  it  is  complex  ;  and  two,  compound. 
But  we  leave  it  to  teachers  to  tiad  out  whether  there  is  any  advantage  in  the  scheme. 

EXERCISES  IN  ANALYSIS   AND    PARSING. 

CF~  In  arranging  the  following  examples,  I  have,  in  general,  passed  from  words  to 
phrases  and  from  phrases  to  clauses,  from  unmodified  to  modified,  from  simple  to  compound, 
and  from  regular  construction  to  inverted  or  elliptical.  To  make  the  simplebt  classification, 
it  has  been  necessary  to  give  sentences  beyond  the  pupil's  present  ability.  The  latter  para- 
graphs or  the  more  complicated  sentences  should  therefore  be  deferred  for  a  second  or  third 
course. — Superior  (,«),  over  the  end  of  a  sentence,  Bhows  that  it  is  simple9 ;  (c),  compound0  ; 
and  (*),  complex*. 

It  is  often  a  convenience  to  name  phrases  and  clauses  according  to  their  lead- 
ing or  principal  words,  or  according  to  their  sense.  Hence  we  have  sub' stantive 
phrases,  ad'jective  phrases,  participial  phrases,  infinitive  phrases,  adverbial  phraser, 
appos'itive  or  explanatory  phrases,  independent  phrases,  ab  solute  phrases,  idiomat'ic 
phrases,  etc. ;  substantive  clauses,  adjective  clauses,  adverbial  clauses,  relative  clauses, 
correlative  clauses,  appositive  or  explanatory  clauses,  conjunctive  clauses,  etc. 

Principal  Elements. 
1.    Simple  Subjects  and   Predicates. 

Unmodified. 

I  went.*  N  +  Y.  Stars  shine.  It  snows.  Lights  cere 
shining.  He  should  have  been  rewarded.  Who  sang  ?  Could 
they  have  gone  ?  Singing  had  commenced.  To  whisper  is  for- 
bidden.    Banners  waved.     Hark  ye. 

*  This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.    The  subject  is  1,  and  the  predicate  is  went. 


copula ;  but  its  chief  idea  is  predication,  rather  than  that  of  merely  joining  parts.  (See 
Kerf's  Comp.  Gram.,  p.  19T.)  The  adjective,  noun,  adjunct,  etc.,  which  follows  the  verb  be, 
or  any  other  intransitive  verb,  and  is  descriptive  of  the  subject,  is  otten  called  an  attribute. 
(See  Mill's  Logic ;  also  the  Grammars  of  Greene,  Covell,  Pinueo,  etc.)  But  it  is  cot  proper 
to  call  it  an  attribute,  when  it  expresses  mere  identity. 

We  may  say  that  the  verb  be  is  limited  by  an  attribute  of  the  subject  ;  but  to  dispose  or 
the  attribute  by  referring  it  to  the  subject,  as  I  have  known  some  teachers  to  do,  is  wrong ; 
for  we  thus  convert  Analysis  at  once  into  Parsing,  or  break  up  the  main  distinction  be- 
tween them,  namely,  that  of  subject  and  predicata 

In  every  language  with  which  I  am  acquainted,  the  copula  is  also  a  verb  that  expresses 
existence;  and  it  is  therefore  highly  probable  that  existence  was  the  fundamental  idea. 
1  She  is  rich"  =  She  exists  in  a  rich  condition.  But  this  idea  of  existence  appears  to  be 
now  generally  lost  in  that  of  predication  ;  and  hence  many  grammarians  take  the  verb  be 
with  the  attribute,  as  the  grammatical  predicate.  This  mode  of  analysis  is  allowable ;  yet 
it  often  leads  to  trouble,  and  tends  to  break  up  the  distinction  between  the  grammatical  and 
the  logical  predicate.  When  I  s.iy,  "John  is  idle";  idle  certainly  does  not  modify  is,  in  the 
'  ordinary  sense  of  modify;  but  let  us  extend  the  meaning  of  modify,  or  use  limit  in  its  place. 
John  may  be — a  hundred  different  things.  The  word  after  the  verb  be  determines  what  he 
K  or  fixes  the  assertion,  or  limits  the  verb  be.  This  mode  of  analysis  has  the  advantage  of 
simplicity,  and  it  is  sufficiently  exact  for  the  requirements  of  Grammar. 

Modifiers.— The  modifying  elements  are  nsnally  called  modifiers,  or  modifi- 
cations. Murray  and  Brown  call  them  incidentally  adjuncts.  Modifier  seems  to  be  the  bet- 
terterm ;  for,  etymologically  considered,  the  terms  are  always  modifiers,  but  not  always 
adjuncts.  The  term  adjunct  is  used  by  nearly  all  grammarians  in  the  sense  which  we  have 
given  to  it  on  p.  63  ;  but  some  late  writers  prefer  prepositional  phrase,  which,  though  not  so 
fibort  as  adjunct,  is  a  good  term,  and  would  deserve  encouragement,  if  adjunct  should  super- 
cede modifier.— Modi  fa  we  use  as  the  generic  term,  and  limit  as  the  specific.  In  analysis  i* 
•wilt  generally  be  found  best  to  use  limit. 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  119 

Modified  by  Words  and  Phrases. 

I.  These  roses  are  very  beautiful.  S  =  P  =:  ST1*  f  Vm  == 
aN  +  V  ba.  2.  Lies  have  short  legss.  3.  Too  much  fear  is  an 
enemy  to  good  deliberation8.  4.  Virtuous  youth  brings  forth 
accomplished  and  nourishing  manhood85.  5.  Milton,  the  author 
of  Paradise  Lost,  was  deeply  versed10  in  ancient  learning.8 

Analysis.— This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  The  entire  subject  is  These 
roses ;  the  subject-nominative  is  roses,  which  is  limited  by  the  adjective  These.  The 
entire  predicate  is  are  very  beautiful ;  the  predicate-verb  is  are,  which  is  limited  by 
the  adjective  beautiful,  or  combines  with  it  in  making  a  descriptive  assertion  of  the 
subject.  Beautiful  is  modified  by  the  adverb  very,  expressing  degree.  Or  say, 
The  predicate- verb  is  are,  which  is  limited  by  the  adjective  beautiful,  an  attribute 
of  the  subject;  and  beautiful  is  modified  by  very,  expressing  degree. 

Modified  by  Clauses. 

Subject. — 1.  They  who  are  set  to  rule  over  others,  must  be 
just.  S  =  Cc  =  Nc  + Va.  2.  There  was  one  clear,  shining 
star,  that1  used  to  come  out  into  the  sky  before  the  rest,  near  the 
church10  spire,  above  the  graves1. 

Predicate. — 3.  Heaven  has  imprinted,  in  the  mother's  face, 
something  that  claims  kindred  with  the  skies*.  4.  I  was  assured 
that  he  would  return*. 

Clausal  Phrases. — 5.  The  disputes  between  the  majority 
which  supported  the  mayor,  and  the  minority  headed  by  the 
magistrates,  had  repeatedly  run  so  high  that15  bloodshed  seamed 
inevitable1.  6.  We  found,  in  our  rambles,  several  pieces  of  flint 
which  the  Indians  had  once  used  for  arrow-heads*. 

Analysis. — 1.  This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence.  The  independent  or  prin- 
cipal clause  is,  They  must  be  just  ;  and  who  are  set  to  rule  over  others,  is  the  depend- 
ent clause,  which  is  joined  to  They  by  the  relative  who,  and  is  used  in  the  sense 
of  an  adjective.  2.  It  would  be  a  convenience  to  parse  like,  near,  and  worth  as 
prepositions;  and  some  respectable  grammarians  parse  them  so.  These  words 
seem  to  have  absorbed  the  governing  power  of  the  preposition.  But  near,  and 
sometimes  like,  may  be  compared  ;  and  sometimes  they  are  followed  by  to.  6.  The 
independent  or  principal  clause,    exclusive  of  its  longer  modifications,  is,  Tue  dis~ 

?)utes  between  the  majority  and  the  minority  had  repeatedly  run  so  high.  (Now  ana- 
yz3  thi3  clause,  and  then  the  remaining  parts.)  The  last  clause  modifies  so  or  so 
Ugh  adverbially,  by  showing  the  degree. 

[For  beginners,  it  will  generally  be  found  easiest  to  resolve  all  sentences  simply 
into  their  independent  and  dependent  propositions,  and  to  take  not  more  for  one 
analysis  thau  a  single  predication,  continually  pushing  aside,  for  subsequent  ana- 
lysis, the  minor  clauses.  It  may  also  be  often  best  to  state  simply  on  what  a  de- 
pendent clause  depends,  or  to  mention  with  this  statement  the  sense  of  the  con- 
nective as  shown  on  p.  65.  When  sentences  are  long,  it  is  sometimes  more 
convenient  to  state  first  the  unmodified  (or  grammatical)  subject  or  predicate,  and 
then  the  modifiers  that  make  the  entire  (or  logical)  subject  or  predicate.] 

Inverted  and  Elliptical  Constructions. 

1.  In  every  grove  warbles  the  voice  of  love  and  pleasure3. 
rNd  -f  V  d.  2.  Bursts  the  wild  cry  of  terror  and  dismay*. 
3.  How  wonderfully  are  we  made8 !  4.  To  what  expedient  wilt 
thou  fly8  ?  5.  Then  first  thy  Sire,  to  send  on  earth,  Virtue,  Ilia 
darling  child,  designeds. 


120  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

G.  "Write.  1.  Sweet  the  pleasure.  8.  Give  me8  the  horse4. 
9.  Let  nothing  frighten  you  but  sins.  10.  The  inquisitive  are 
generally  talkative.  11.  Here  the  wigwam  blaze  beamed  on  the 
tender  and  helpless8. 

"  Where's  thy  true  treasure  ?"    Gold  says,  "  Not  in  me  ;" 
And,  "  Not  in  me,"  the  Diamond0.     Gold  is  poor ! 

Analysis  &  Parsing.— 1-  Always  show  first  what  the  prose  arrangement  would  he,  and 
then  analyze  the  sentence.  6.  Supply  tfioa  or  you.  7.  Supply  is.  9.  Let  is  modified  hy  the 
phrase  after  it  as  the  entire  object,  and  by  nothing  as  the  simple  object.  Frighten  modifies 
nothing — or  refers  the  act  to  it,  and  also  depends  on  Let.  "  We  made  him  speak  ;"  "  We 
made  him  poor;"  M  We  made  him  a  bankrupt  ,•"  "  I  feel  my  health  declining :"  in  all  these 
sentences,  the  Italic  word  modifies  the  substantive,  and  depends  also  on  the  verb.  10.  The 
adjective  inquisitive  is  here  used  elliptically  for  inquisitive  persons;  and,  for  the  sake  of 
convenience,  it  may  be  parsed  as  a  noun  But  when  such  an  adjective  is  modified  by  an  ad- 
verb, or  when  several  such  adjectives  unite  in  describing  the  same  persons,  a  substantive 
should  be  supplied.    11.  Supply  ones  or  persons. 

Infinitive  Phrases  used  as  Subjects. 

1.  *To  relieve  the  poor,  is  our  duty8,  iro  +  Vst.  2.  To 
pay  as  you  go,  is  the  safest  way  to  fortune1.  3.  To  have  ad- 
vanced much  farther  without  wagons  or  supplies,  would  have 
been  dangerous8. 

Inverted  and  Elliptical. 
Unknown  to  them,  when  sensual  pleasures  cloy, 
To  fill  the  languid  pause  with  finer  joyx. 

*  To  relieve  the  poor  is  the  entire  subject  ;  to  relieve  is  the  unmodified  subject. 
Clauses  used  as  Subjects. 

1.  That  the  earth  is  round,  is  now  well  known*.  c  -fVbb. 
2.  Whether  we  should  go,  was  next  discussed*.  3.  How  many 
and  what  enormous  lies  have  been  published  in  the  newspapers, 
must  have  astonished  every  honest  reader1.  4.  "  Dust  thou  art, 
to  dust  returnest,"  was  not  written  of  the  soul*. 

That  the  earth  is  round,  is  the  entire  principal  subject.  That  is  the  connective,  which 
is  used  to  unite  more  closely  into  a  whole  the  words  of  its  clause,  and  to  combine  them  ia 
this  sense  with  the  principal  predicate. 

Difrlcvilt    Parsing. 

Give  what8  you  enn  spare.  What7  is  that  yonder  ?  I  know 
not  what7  it  is.  What10  a  simpleton  he  is  !  What1  is  a  pro- 
noun.      What10!  shall  we  never  have  any  rest ?       Is  is  is7. 

Compound  Subjects  and  Predicates. 
Compound  Subjects. 

Nouns    and    Pronouns. 

1.  John1  and  I1  went.  N  j  N"  +  Y.  2.  Either  James  or 
tTenry  is  talking8.  3.  Lead,  iron,  and  coal,  were  found8.  4.  His 
magnificence,  his  taste,  his  classical  learning,  his  high  spirit,  the 
grace  and  urbanity  of  his  manners,  were  admitted  even  by  his 
enemies8. 

— Axaltsts. — 1.  Tins  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence,  with  a  compound  subject.  Jolm 
and  J  u  the  entire  subject ;  and  John  and  I  are  the  subject-nominatives,  connected  by  and. 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  121 

4.  Where  no  conjunction  is  expressed,  it  is  probably  best  to  say  that  the  parts  are  connected 
by  simple  succession. — When  a  predicate  must  be  supplied  with  each  nominative,  then  the 
sentence,  not  the  subject,  should  be  considered  compound  ;  as,  "  You  or  he  is  to  be  blamed." 
14  The  best  books,  not  the  cheapest,  should  be  our  object."     See  Comp.  Gram.,  p.  72. 

Infinitive  Phrases. 

1.  To  remain  and  to  advance  were  equally  dangerous.  2.  *To 
hope  and  strive  is  the  way  to  thrive.  3.  To  be  wise  in  our  own 
eyes,  to  be  wise  in  the  opinion  of  the  world,  and  to  be  wise  in 
the  sight  of  our  Creator,  are  three  things  that  rarely  coincide1. 

*  To  hope  and  strive  is  the  entire  subject  and  the  subject-nominative.  To  hope  is  in  part 
the  subject  of  is.    Is  agrees  with  to  hope  and  to  strive  conjointly,  taken  as  one  thing. 

Clauses. 

That  he  should  take  offense  at  such  a  trifle,  that  he  should 
write  an  article  about  it,  and  that  he  should  then  publish  it,  sur- 
prised us  allx. 

Clausal  Phrases. 

The  wit  whose  vivacity  condemns  slower  tongues  to  silence, 
the  scholar  whose  knowledge  allows  no  man  to  fancy  that  he  in- 
structs him,  the  critic  who  suffers  no  fallacy  to  pass  undetected, 
and  the  reasoner  who  condemns  the  idle  to  thought  and  the 
negligent  to  attention,  are  generally  praised  and  feared,  rev- 
erenced and  avoided*.     Nc,  Ncc',  ¥c,  N  c  +  b  V  j  V,  V  j V. 

Compound  Predicates. 
1.  He  rose,  reigned,   and  fell8.     N  +  VYjV.     2.  Read  and 
write.    3.  Slowly  and  sadly  they  climb  the  distant  mountains,  and 
read  their  doom  in  the  setting  sun8. 

4.        Though  the  world  smile  on  you  blandly, 
Let11  your  friends  be12  choice10  and  few; 
Choose  your  course,  pursue  it  grandly, 

And  achieve  what8  you  pursue. —  T.  B.  Read, 
5.  Glass  is  impermeable  to  water,  admits  the  light  and  ex- 
cludes the  wind,  is  capable  of  receiving  and  retaining  the  most 
lustrous  colors,  is  susceptible  of  the  finest  polish,  can  be  carved 
or  sculptured  like  stone  or  metal,  never  loses  a  fraction  of  its  sub* 
stance  by  constant  use,  and  m  so  insensible  to  the  action  of  acids 
that  it  is  employed  by  chemists  for  purposes  to  which  no  other 
substance  could  be  applied*. 

S  =  C  c  c'  =  N  +  Vm,  VmVm,  Vm,  VmVm,  Vm,  j  Vbadc*>c'. 

Analysis. — 1.  This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence,  with  a  compound  predicate.  4.  By 
supplying  thou  after  each  verb,  the  second  member  affords  three  simple  coordinate  clauses: 
but  it  is  probably  better  to  consider  these  three  verbs  as  making  a  compound  predicate. 

Adjective  Elements, 
l.  Articles, 
A  church  stands  on  the  adjoining  hill.     A  statesman's  charao 
ter  should  be  an  honor  to  his  country.     rsN"  +  Vrtd. 


122  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

Elliptical  and  Peculiar  Constructions. 

1.  A  man  and  woman  were  drowned.  S=P=rNj(r)N-f  VI 
2.  He  bought  a  house  and  lot8.  3.  A  river  runs  between  the  old 
and  the  new  mansion8.  4.  A  great  many  adjectives  are  derived 
from  nouns8    5.  Peter  the  Great  is  the  pride  of  Russia8. 

Analysis  &  Pausing.— 1.  Supply  a  before  woman.  2.  A  relates  to  both  house  and  lot, 
for  both  are  regarded  as  one  thing.  4.  A  relates  to  all  the  rest  of  the  subject;  or  it  would  per- 
haps be  better  to  parse  many  as  a  plural  collective  noun,  and  supply  of  after  it.  We  say,-'  A 
great  many  of  them."  5.  "  Peter  the  Great"  =  Peter  the  Great  Emperor  ;  or,  Ihe  Great 
Peter.     But  it  is  probably  bost  to  parse  the  whole  expression  as  a  proper  uouu. 

2.  Adjectives. 

1.  This  little  twig  bore  that  large  red  apple8.  aa'N  + 
VaaVo.  2.  Green  fields  and  forests  were  before  us8.  3.  A  swift 
and  limpid  rivulet  purled  over  the  pebbles8.  4.  He  used  very- 
forcible  but  courteous  language8.  5.  Two  plum-trees,  radiant 
with  white  blossoms  on  every  bough,  overtop  the  garden  wall3. 
6.  The  whole  world  swarms  with  life,  animal  and  vegetable8. 

Apple  is  modified  by  red ;  red  appU.  by  large ;  and  large  red  apple,  by  that.  Green, 
in  the  next  example,  belongs  to  both  fields  and  forests. 

Inverted  and  Elliptical. 

1.  A  bright  and  handsome  young  lady  she  was8.  2.  Calm, 
attentive,  and  cheerful,  he  confutes  more  gracefully  than  others 
compliment1.  Naaja  -f  Vb'bc.  3.  Then  followed  a  long,  a 
strange,  a  glorious  conflict  of  genius  against  power8.  4.  So  ex- 
cellent a  faculty  is  memory,  that  all  other  faculties  borrow  from 
it  their  beauty  and  perfection*.  5.  She  was  a  virgin  lovely  as 
the  dewy  rose*.     6.  Violets  meek  and  jonquils  sweet  she  chose8. 

Analysis. — 2.  The  dependent  clause,  than  others  compliment,  limits,  determines,  or  com- 
pletes the  comparison.  5.  Virgin  is  modified  by  lovely  ;  and  lovely  is  modified  by  the  ad- 
verbial clause  as  the  dewy  rose  (is  lovely). 

3.  Possessives. 

John's  horse  is  in  our  garden8.  sN  + Vd.  Gen.  George 
Washington's  residence  was  on  the  Potomac8.  Soft10  blows  the 
breeze  o'er  India's  coral  strand8. 

Elliptical  and  Peculiar  Constructions. 

1.  I  will  wait  at  Smith's3,  the  bookseller7.  2.  I  will  wait  at 
Smith3  the  bookseller's7.  3.  Lewis3  and  Raymond's  factory  was 
burned8.  4.  This  is  a  discovery  of  Sir  IsaacNewton's8.  5*.  That 
head  of  yours  has  many  strange  fancies  in  it8.  6.  The  sea  is  His, 
for  He  made  it*.  7.  Simpson's  Playfair's  Euclid  is  the  one7  that 
1  studied1.     8.  The  bard  of  Lomond's  lay  is  dones. 

Analysis  &  Parsing. — 1.  Supply  house  or  store  after  Smith's.  1.  Bookseller's,  rother 
than  Smith,  is  the  word  in  apposition.  3.  Lewis  is  still  in  the  possessive  case,  though  used 
without  the  possessive  sign.  4.  Supply  discoveries.  5.  Yours,  an  idiom  ;  equivalent,  to  your 
possession.  6.  Supply  property.  It  would  be  a  convenience  to  parse  His  as  a  possessive  pro- 
noun representing  a  possessive  modifying  word  and  a  nominative  chief  word,  and  therefore 
in  the  nominative  case,  agreeing  with  sea.  In  a  similar  way,  yours,  of  the  preceding  exam- 
ple. But  the  analogies  of  grammar  are  against  this  mode  of  parsing  these  words.  7.  Euclid 
is  limited  by  Playfair's,  and  the  phrase  Playfair's  Euclid  is  limited  by  Simpson's. 
8.  Bard  ($)  is  governed  by  lay,  and  LomondCs)  by  of. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SENTENCES.  123 

4.  Appositive  or  Explanatory  Expressions. 

Nouns  and  Pronouns. 

1.  Thou,  thou7,  art  the  mans.  Ne+Vrt.  2.  I  myself  was 
present83.  3.  The  nurse,  that  ancient  lady,  preached  decorum3. 
4.  The  twin  sisters,  Poetry  and  Music,  are  my  delight8.  5.  There 
is  but  one  God,  the  author,  the  creator,  and  the  governor  of  the 
world ;  almighty,  eternal,  and  incomprehensible3.  6.  Thou  sun, 
both  eye  and  soul  of  the  world.  7.  John,  John,  John!  you  lazy 
boy  J  8.  A  cove,  or  inlet7,  divides  the  island3.  9.  The  commis- 
sioners, that  is,  Mason  and  Dixon,  established  this  line3.  10.  She 
was  proud  of  me  as15  her  pupiK  11.  I  object  to  his  appointment 
as  clerks.  12.  Messrs.  William  and  Robert  Bailey  wrere  con- 
versing with  the  Misses  Barnes8.  13.  Madame  de  Stael  calls 
beautiful  architecture  frozen  music8.  14.  I  sold  them  for  a  dollar 
a  pair8.  15.  The  saint1,  the  father7,  and  the  husband,  prays.* — 
Burns.  16.  You  are  too  humane  and  considerate;  things  few 
people  can  be  charged  with8. — Pope. 

ANAT/vsrs  &  Pausing. — 6.  Analogy  seems  to  be  In  favor  of  making  Thou  the  nominative 
independent,  and  sun  the  appositive.  (See  sentences  beginning  with  it,  next  paragraph.) 
Eye  and  soul  are  in  apposition  with  sun.  7.  The  first  John  is  the  principal  word,  which  is 
modified  hy  John,  John,  and  perhaps  you  rather  than  boy.  You  is  modified  by  boy,  and  boy 
by  lazy.  9.  That  is,  a  conjunction.  10.  Pupil  is  in  apposition  with  me,  and  joined  to  it  by 
as.  11.  Clerk  is  in  apposition  with  Ms.  This  sentence  might  be  considered  somewhat  am- 
biguous, and  it  is  therefore  not  to  be  commended.  12.  William  (Bailvy)  and  Robert  Bailey 
are  put  in  apposition  with  Messrs. ;  but  Misses  Barnes  is  best  parsed  as  bnt  one  noun.  13. 
Calls  is  modified  by  beautiful  architecture  frozen  mn$ic,  as  the  entire  object,  and  by  archi- 
tecture as  the  simple  object.  Music  is  put  in  apposition  with  architecture,  and  is  partially 
governed  by  calls.  14.  Parir  is  in  apposition  with  them,  for  it  explains  them  distributively. 
16.  Thinys  is  probably  best  parsed  as  an  appositive  absolute— relating  to  the  adjectives  hu- 
mane and  considerate— and  therefore  m  the  nominative  case,  according  to  Kule  II.  Supply 
which  as  the  object  of  with. 

Infinitive  Phrases. 

1.  It  is  foolish  to  lay  out  money  in  a  purchase  of  repentance8. 
N  ie  b  o  d  -f-  Va.     2.  It  is  mean  to  divulge  the  secrets  of  a  friend8. 

3.  It  is  our  duty  to  be  friendly  toward  mankind,  as  much  as  it  is 
our  interest  that  mankind  should  be  friendly  toward  us*. 

Analysis. — 1.  This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  It,  with  the  explanatory  infinitivo 
phrase,  to  layout,  moneii,  etc.,  is  the  entire  subject;  and  It  is  the  subject-nominative.  It  is 
modified  by  the  phrase  to  lay  out  money,  etc.,  as  the  entire  appositive  or  explanatory  phrase ; 
and  by  the  infinitive  to  lay,  as  the  sinvnle  appositive.  To  lay  is  modified  by  the  adverb  out, 
the  object  money,  and  the  complex  adjunct  in  a  purchase  of  rex>entance. 

Clauses. 

1.  It  is  through  inward  health,  that  we  enjoy  all  outward 
things.  Nce  -f  Vd.  2.  It  is  scarcely  to  be  imagined,  how  soon 
the  mind  sinks  to  a  level  with  its  condition1.  3.  Study  is  at 
least  valuable 'for  this — that  it  makes  man  his  own  companion*. 

4.  The  opinion  that  the  soul  is  immortal,  has  always  prevailed. 

Analysts  &  Pausing. — 1  This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence,  consisting  of  an  inde- 
pendent and  a  dependent  proposition.  The  unmodified  independent  proposition  is,  It  is 
through  inward  health;  the  dependent  proposition  is,  that  we  enjoy  all  outward  things, 
which  is  used  in  the  sense  of  an  appositive,  explanatory  of  It.  3.  Supply  thiny;  or  say,  This 
is  a  demonstrative  pronoun  representing  the  phrase  this  thing,  and  therefore  in  the  n.  g.,  3d. 
p.,  s.  n.,  and  in  the  o.  c— being  the  object  of  the  preposition  for— according  to  Rule  V.  4  The 
unmodified  independent  clause  is,  Tlu>  opinion  has  always  prevailed  ;  the  dependent  clause 
is,  that  the  soul  is  immortal. 


124  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

Inverted  and  Elliptical. 

1.  Child  of  the  Sun,  refulgent  Summer  comes8,  a  Ned  -f  V 
2.  .Thyself  shalt  see  the  act*.  (N)  e  +  V r  o.  3.  This  monument 
is  itseil  the  orator  of  this  occasion8.—  Webster.  4.  One  by  one 
the  moments  flys.     5.  They  had  one  each8. 

™Jh!l^Y8IS  f  £AB8Isra"-3-  JMf  is  in  apposition  with  monument ;  it  is  not  a  nredicate- 
nominative.  4.  One  may  be  parsed  as  an  adjective,  belonging  to  meinent  under"  Jod  -  or  it 
may  be  parsed  as  an  indefinite  pronoun,  representing,  with ,  its^adjuncT  the  subiect  distribii 

presentingktributively  ag.in  ^suble^f  and   tJerfiS  pn/in^e^me's'e^hTt 

b sunnSed  wUhoS? rh ^nJifth  7  be P*"**  a8  a»  adjective  ;  when  a  substantive  can  not 
De  supplied  without  changing  the  sense,  the  pronom  nal  should  be  Darsed  as  a  nrononn  •  *nrf 
when  a  substantive  can  not  be  easily  supplied,  it  will  be  generally  better  to  Vane  XV  pro- 

5.  Participles. 

I.  Truth,  crushed  to  earth,  shall  rise  again8.  Npd  -f-  Vb. 
2.  The  deer,  seeing  me,  fled8.  3.  The  wolf,  being  much  exas- 
perated by  the  wound,  sprang  upon  the  horse8.  4.  He  had  a 
beautiful  daughter,  betrothed  to  a  chief3.  5.  I  had  it  done  for 
you8.  6.  There  are  twenty-six  senators,  distinguished  for  their 
wisdom,  not  elevated  by  popular  favor,  but  chosen  by  a  select 
body  of  men*.  1.  The  blast  seemed  to  bear  away  the  sound  of 
the  voice,  permitting  nothing  to  be  heard  but14  its  own  wild 
howling,  mingled  with  the  creaking  and  the  rattling  of  the  cord- 
age, and  the  hoarse  thunder  of  the  surges,  striving  like  savage 
beasts  for  our  destruction8. 

Inverted . 

8.  Close  beside  her,  faintly  moaning,  fair  and  young,  a  soldier  lay, 
Torn  with  shot  and  pierced  with  lances,  bleeding  slow  his  life  away3. 

Analysts  &  Parsing.—  1.  Truth  is  the  subject-nominative,  and  it  is  modified  by  the 
participial  phrase  crushed  to  earth.  5.  Bone  is  here  a  participle  rather  than  an  infinitive. 
It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  determine  whether  a  word  in  this  construction  is  a  participle,  or 
an  infinitive  with  to  be  understood  before  it.  Be  governed  by  the  sense.  8.  This  is  one  of  the 
sentences  in  which  it  is  hard  to  determine  what  makes  the  subject,  and  what  makes  the 
predicate.  Perhaps  the  division  is  properly  made  thus:  A  soldier,  fair  and  young,  torn  with 
shot  and  pierced  with  lances,  |  lay  close  beside  her,  faintly  moaning,  and  slowly  bleeding 
away  his  life.    See  p.  114. 

6.  Infinitives. 

1*  Contributions  to  relieve  the  sufferers,  were  sent  in8. 
Niro-f-Vb.  2.  The  book  to  be  adopted  by  us,  should  be 
compared  with  others  of  the  same  kinds.  3.  Persuade  Mary  to 
let  him  have  his  books8.  4.  Let  us  have  some  of  these  clams 
cooked  for  supper8. 

Analysis  &  Parsing. — 1.  Contributions  is  limited  by  the  infinitive  phrase  to  relieve  the 
sufferers.  4  Cooked  presents  here  again  the  difficulty  of  deciding  between  the  perf.  pass, 
participle  and  the  pres.  pass,  infinitive.    It  is  rather  the  infimtive. 

7.    Adjuncts. 

Simple. 

1.  The  roar  of  the  lion  was  heard8.  rNd  +  V.  2.  She 
bought  a  house  with  its  furniture8.     3.  The  promises  of  Hope  are 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  125 

sweeter  than  roses  in  the  bud,  and  far  more  flattering  to  expec- 
tation1. 4.  The  sailors  did  not  like  the  idea  of  being  treated  sos. 
5.  There  is  a  flower  about  to  bloom3.  6.  The  question  of  who  is 
to  lead  them,  was  next  discussed1. 

Complex. 

7.  A  Gothic  cathedral  is  a  blossoming  in  stone,  subdued  by 
the  insatiable  desire  of  harmony  in  man8.  8.  The  gold  in  a  piece 
of  quartz  from  the  mines  of  California,  weighed  several  pounds3. 

Compound. 

10.  The  large  elm  between  the  house  and  the  river,  seems  to 
be  the  king  of  the  forest1".  11.  Brazil  is  regarded  as  a  land  of 
mighty  rivers  and  virgin  forests,  palm-trees  and  jaguars,  anacon- 
das and  alligators,  howling  monkeys  and  screaming  parrots, 
diamond-mines,  revolutions,  and  earthquakes8. 

Analysis  <fe  Parsing. — I.  Roar  is  modified  by  the  adjunct  of  the  lion.  5.  About  governs 
the  infinitive  after  it.  Compare  with  "About  the  house" — nearness.  6.  0/ governs  the 
clause  after  it  8.  Weigh  is  usually  parsed  as  intransitive ;  and  the  object  after  it  is  disposed 
of  by  a  Rule  corresponding  to  our  Rule  VI.  But  weigh  fundamentally  signifies  to  lift,  as  in 
the  phrase  "  to  weigh  anchor ;"  and  I  therefore  incline  to  think  it  should  be  parsed  as  tran- 
sitive. 10.  Between  the  house  and  the  river,  is  an  adjunct  that  is  inseparably  compound  in 
its  object. 

8.    Clauses. 

I.  The  honeysuckles  which  bloom  round  our  portico,  are  de- 
liciously  fragrant1.  S  =  Cc  =  rNc+Vba.  2.  The  man  who 
sows  his  field,  trusts  in  God*.  3.  Self-denial  is  the  sacrifice  which 
virtue  must  make*.  4.  We  encamped  by  a  limpid  rivulet,  that 
purled  over  the  pebbles1.  5.  He  paid  more  for  the  flowers  and 
gems  which  he  bought,  than  they  are  worth*.  6.  'Tis  the  land 
where  the  orange  and  citron  grow1.  1.  There  is  plain  proof 
that15  he  is  guilty1.  8.  The  man  with  whom  love  is  a  sentiment, 
ever  yearns  for  a  home  of  his  ownx.  9.  He  who  said  nothing, 
had  the  better  of  it,  and  got  what  he  wanted*. 

10.  As  one  that  runs  in  haste,  and  leaps  over  a  fence,  may  fall 
into  a  pit,  on  the  other  side,  which  he  did  not  see ;  so  is  the  man 
who  plunges  suddenly  into  any  action  before  he  sees  the  con- 
sequences*. 

Inverted  and  Elliptical. 

II.  Whom  ye  ignorantly  worship,  him  declare  I  unto  you*. 
12.  We  have  no  such  laws  as  those  by  which  he  was  tried  in  tho 
State  from  which  he  came*.     Ccc' c".      'Tis  the  land  I  love*/ 

Abridged. 

13.  She  turned, — a  reddening  rose7  in  bud, 

Its  calyx  half  withdrawn, — 
Her  cheek  on  fire  with  damasked  blood 
Of  girlhood's  glowing  dawn! — Holmes. 

Analysis  <fe  Pausing.—  1.  The  honeysuckles  are  deliriously  fragrant,  is  an  unmodified 
Independent  proposition.     Which  bloom  round  our  portico,  is  a  dependent  proposition,  used 

6* 


126  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

in  the  sense  c  fan  adjective  describing  honeysuckles.  5.  Than  has  here  a  construction  simi- 
lar to  that  of  the  relative  as  ;  but  it  is  probably  best  to  supply  that  is  which.  8.  With  thows 
the  relation  between  looe  and  whom,  rather  than  between  is  and  whom.  Is  early  equivalent 
to  whose  love.  10.  As  and  so  are  correlatives.  The  principal  correlatives  are  such — as, 
such— that,  so— that,  so — as,  as — as,  as— so,  the— the,  (comparative) — than.  Clauses,  joined 
by  correlatives,  sometimes  modify  each  other ;  but,  in  most  cases,  only  one  of  the  clauses  is 
strictly  the  modifier.  **  As  you  sow,  so  you  shall  reap."  Here  the  reaping,  not  the  sowing, 
is  described.  13.  Its  calyx  half  withdraw7i,  is  an  absolute  phrase,  used  here  in  the  sense  of  a 
relative  clause  describing  rose.  Her  cheek  (being)  on  fire,  etc.,  is  an  absolute  phrase,  used 
here  for  an  adverbial  clause  of  manner  or  cause,  and  modifying  turned. 

Adverbial  Elements. 
1*    Objectives. 

Nouns     and     Pronouns. 

1,  Birds  build  nestss.  N  -f-  Vo.  2.  The  soil  produces  corn, 
V>bacco,  hemp,  wheat,  and  grass8.  3.  Here  he  brought  her6  the 
choicest  food,  the  finest  clothing,  mats  for  her  bed,  and  sandal-oil 
to  perfume  herself  with8.  4.  The  hurricane  even  tore  down  en- 
closures that  had  been  lately  made,  trees  that  had  stood  for  ages, 
and  mansions  that  had  been  built  of  stone*. 

Infinitive  Phrases. 

1.  1  like  to  study8.  N  +  Vi°.  2.  We  preferred  to  remain 
at  home,  and  learn  our  lessons8.  3.  He  intended  to  move  to  the 
West,  to  purchase  him  a  farm,  and  to  end  his  days  on  it  in  peace 
and  quiet8. 

Clauses. 

1.  I  believe  that  he  is  honest  and  industrious*.  N  +  V  c°. 
2.  Who  can  tell  where  this  war  will  end  ?x  3.  Every  one  must 
have  noticed  how  much  more  amiable  some  children  are  than 
others1.  4.  She  saw  that  we  were  tired,  and  needed  some  re- 
freshment1. 5.  Tell  us  not,  sir,  that  we  are  weak,  unable  to  cope 
with  so  formidable  an  adversary1.  6.  They  said  that  Halifax 
loved  the  dignity  and  emolument  of  office,  that  while  he  con- 
tinued to  be  president  it  would  be  impossible  for  him  to  put  forth 
his  whole  strength  against  the  government,  and  that  to  dismiss 
him  would  be  to  set  him  free  from  all  restraint*.     N  -f  Vc,  e'e,  c. 

Anai/"»is. — I  believe,  is  the  unmodified  principal  clause ;  that  he  is  honest,  etc.,  is  the 
dependent  dau«e,  used  here  as  the  object  of  believe.    See  Comp.  Gram.,  p.  79. 

Inverted  and  Elliptical. 

1.  Me  glory  summons  to  the  martial  scene8.  2.  Him  well  I 
knew,  and  every  truant  knewc.  3.  She  gave  what  she  could  not 
sell*.  4,  I  know  not  what  to  do8.  5.  I  have  nothing  to  say8. 
C.  u  Life*"  says  Seneca,  "is  a  voyage,  in  the  progress  of  which 
we  are  continually  changing  our  scenes"*.  7.  O,  that  those  lips 
had  language1 !  8.  He  bade  the  stranger5  hail4.  9.  Teach  me 
my  own  defects  to  scans. 

3.  To  simplify  the  analysis.  She  gave  what  may  be  called  the  principal  clause ;  what  she 
could  not  sell,  ;he  dependent  clause,  whose  predicate  modifies  or  describes  the  object  of  the 
principal  claute.  (But  seep.  130.)  4.  To  do,  object  of  know  ;  what,  object  of  to  do.  5.  Nothing 
{that  I  wish)  k  say.  Perhaps  this  idiom  is  best  disposed  of,  by  considering  nothing  the  object 
of  both  liave  and  to  do.    7.  0,  (how  much  I  wish)  that,  etc. 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  127 

2.    Predicate-Nominatives. 

Nouns  and  Pronouns, 

He  is  a  soldier.  N  -f  V  r  t.  I  have  become  a  farmer.  She  was 
appointed  governess.  Man  is  a  bundle  of  habits  and  relations8.  This 
aunt  Betsy7  was  the  neatest  and  most  efficient  piece  of  human  machinery 
that  ever  operated  in  forty  places  at  oncex.  Tecumseh's  brother  was  the 
priest  and  prophet  of  the  tribe8.  A  poor  relation  is  the  most  irrelevant 
thing  in  nature,  an  odious  approximation,  a  haunting  conscience,  a  per- 
petually recurring  mortification,  a  drawback  on  your  rising,  a  stain  in  your 
blood,  a  drain  on  your  purse,  and  a  more  intolerable  drain  on  your  pride8. 
1.  The  brooks  ran  nectar7.  2.  Towards  the  earth's  centre  is  down7.  3. 
He  is  tired  of  being-a  loafer8.  4.  1  knew  it  to  be  him8. 
Where  are  the  flowers,  the  fair  young  flowers,  that  lately  sprang  and  stood, 
In  softer  airs  and  brighter  light,  a  beauteous  sisterhood!8 

Infinitives. — To  venture  in  was  to  die8.  Their  service  was,  to  grind 
the  corn  and  carry  the  baggage8.  The  best  way  to  preserve  health,  is, 
to  be  careful  about  diet  and  exercise8. 

Clauses. — 5.  My  impression  is,  that  you  will  succeeds  The  law  should 
be,  that  he  who  can  not  read  should  not  vote*.  The  excuse  was,  that 
the  army  had  not  been  well  enough  equipped,  that  the  roads  were  too  bad, 
and  that  the  supplies  were  deficient*. 

Inverted  and  Elliptical. — 6.  I  shall  be  all  anxiety,  till  T  know  what? 
his  plans  arex.  A  joy  thou  art  and  a  wealth  to  all8.  We  stand  the 
latest,  and,  if  we  fall,  the  last,  experiment7  of  self-government0. 

3.    Adjectives. 

You  are  studious.  N  +  Va.  She  was  considered  beautiful.  Her 
countenance  looked  mild  and  gentle*.  The  question  now  before  Con- 
gress, is  practical  as  death,  enduring  as  time,  and  high  as  human  destiny*. 
tiavy  is  so  base  and  detestable,  so  vile  in  its  original,  and  so  pernicious  in 
its  effects,  that  the  predominance  of  almost  any  other  passion  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred*. Blennerhas3et  is  described  as  having  been  amiable  and  refined, 
and  a  passionate  lover7  of  music8.  To  bleach  is  to  make  white. —  Webster. 
Correct  the  heart,  and  all  will  go  rights — Porteus. 

Inverted  and  Elliptical. — Lovely  art  thou,  0  Peace!  Large,  glossy, 
and  black  hung  the  beautiful  fruit8.       Green's  the  sod,  and  cold  the  clayc. 

4.    Adverbs.     $ 

Verbs  Modified. — He  spoke  eloquently.  N*+  Vb.  The  net  was 
curiously  woven.  The  bird  flew  rapidly  away8.  What  he  did,  he  did 
patiently,  accurately,  and  thoroughly*.  7.  Drink  deep,  or  taste  not  the 
Pierian  spring0. 

Adjectives  Modified. — The  work  is  highly  useful.  rN  + Vba.  The 
well  is  deep  enough.  How  various,  how  animated,  how  full  of  interest 
is  the  survey8 1       I  had  never  seen  any  thing  quite  so  beautiful  before8. 

Analysis  &  Parrtno.— 1.  To  nectar,  Rule  IV  is  usually  applied  ;  but  the  sense  seems 
to  require  Rule  VII.  The  brooks  were  nectar.  2.  Toward  the  earth's  centre,  noun.  So,  ik  For 
me  to  go,  is  impossible."  3.  Loafer,  nom.  absol. ;  cut  off  from  He  by  a  governing  word.  4. 
For  want  of  a  better  name,  call  Aim  i\  predicate- subs' antive,  not  a  predicate-  nominative.  5.  Is, 
tkaty-M  toill  succeed,  is  tbe  entire  predicate;  is  is  the  predicate-verb,  limited  by  the  explana- 
tory c  ause  that  you,  etc.,  which  is  used  here  in  the  sense  of  a  predicate-nominative.  6.  All 
is  an  adjective  belonprtng  to  /.  7.  Deep,  remnant  of  an  adverbial  modifier  ;  therefore  an  ad- 
verb. (See  Comp.  Gram.,  p.  24S.)  N.  li.  "  I  am  here,"  adv. ;  "lam  near"  adj.  Very 
little  difference  iu  analogy. 


128  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES. 

Adverbs  Modified. — We  marched  rather  slowly.  You  have  come  al- 
together too  soon.       The  car  runs  not  quite  fast  enough. 

Clauses  modifying  adverbially. 
The  child  seemed  to  recline  on  its  mother's  bosom,  as  some  infant  blos- 
som on  its  parent  stem-*.  The  cottage  stood  where  the  mountain  shad- 
ows fell  when  the  sun  was  declining*.  Remember,  while  you  are  de- 
liberating, the  season  now  so  favorable  may  pass  away,  never  to  return*. 
When  misfortunes  overtake  you,  when  sickness  assails  you,  and  when 
friends  forsake  you,  religion  will  be  your  greatest  comfort*.  The  farther 
we  went,  the  worse  we  fared*. 

Inverted  and  Elliptical. 

TJp  soar3  the  lark,  the  lyrical  poet  of  the  skys.      ITere,  all  is  confusion; 
there,  all  is  order  and  beautyc.       When  young,  life's  journey  I  began1. 
More  and  more  richly  the  rose-heart  keeps  glowing, 
Till  from  its  nourishing  stem  it  is  riven*. 

5.  Participles. 

He  walks  limping.  N  +  Vp.  They  lay  concealed3.  The  oak  fell 
shivered  by  lightning8.  He  went  on  his  way  rejoicing.  Our  recruits 
stood  shivering,  and  rubbing  their  hands,  in  groups  on  the  deck  of  the 
boat3.  Now  the  bright  morning  star,  day's  harbinger,  comes  dancing  from 
the  east8. 

6.  Infinitives, 

Verls  Modified. — The  child  seemed  to  sleep,  r  N  +  "V  i.  She  wr & 
supposed  to  be  rich8.  He  was  known  to  have  assisted  the  editor3.  Here 
jasmines  spread  their  silver  flowers,  to  deck  the  wall  or  weave  the  bower?, 
To  curb  him,  to  stand  up  against  him,  we  want  arms  of  the  same  kind'. 

Adjectives  Modified. — She  is  rather  young  to  go  to  school3.  It  i?  a 
thing  not  easy  to  be  done8.  Pope  was  not  content  to  please ;  he  desired 
to  excel,  and  therefore  always  did  his  best0. 

Adverbs  Modified. — It  is  too  badly  done  to  last3.  It  was  so  bright  as 
to  dazzle  our  eyes8.     He  proceeded  too  cautiously  to  fall  into  such  a  trap3. 

7.    Adjuncts. 

Verbs  Modified.— I  am  in  trouble.  N  +  V  d.  Deliver  us  from  evil. 
You  are  suspected  of  having  been  negligent3.  Is  there  not  a  display  of 
infinite  goodness,  in  th^vicissitudes  of  the  seasons?3  Religion  dwells  not 
in  the  tongue,  but  in  the  heart8  orc  These  two  hundred  drachmas  will,  in  a 
little  while,  rise  to  four  thousand8.       This  will  depend  on  who  he  is*. 

Adjectives  Modified. — Let  us  be  watchful  of  our  liberties3.  He  is  :a-» 
dolent  about  every  thing3.       They  were  invincible  in  arms3. 

Inverted  and  Elliptical . 

In  the  same  cradle  was  I  rocked,  and  by  the  same  maternal  hand.s  or  c 
On  that  plain,  in  rosy  youth,  they  had  fed  their  father's  flocks3.  One  hot 
summer's  morning,  a  little  cloud  rose  out  of  the  sea,  and  glided  lightly,  like 
a  playful  child,  through  the  blue  sky,  and  the  wide  earth;  which  lay 
parched  and  languishing  from  the  long  drought*.  By  fairy  hands  their 
knell  is  rung8.  Come,  go  with  me  the  jungle  through0.  According  to 
some  ancient  philosophers,  the  sun  quenches  his  flames  in  the  ocean, 
(Supply  To  believe,  etc.;  for  the  sun  does  not  set  according  tv,  etc.) 


ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENCES.  129 

8.    Clauses. 

I  came  that  I  might  assist  youx.  I  am  afraid  that  he  will  not  return*. 
He  was  assured  that  every  thing  should  be  attended  tox. 

This  is  merely  a  general  class  of  modifications,   including  objective  clauses,   predicate- 
nominative  clauses,  adverbial  clauses,  and  occasionally  a  clause  that  can  not  well  be  brought 
under  any  one  of  these  three  heads. 
|3^~  Connectives  and  independent  elements  have  been  sufficiently  shown  elsewhere.  Seep.  107 

Simple  Sentences. 

A  hollow  tree  sheltered  us  from  the  storm.*  Heaven  lies  about  us  in 
our  infancy.  Bad  education  and  bad  example  increase  greatly  our  natu- 
ral depravity.  All  vice  infatuates  and  corrupts  the  judgment.  The  surest 
way  to  lose  power,  is  to  abuse  it.  London,  the  capital  of  England,  is  the 
largest  and  richest  city  in  the  world.  Italy  is  noted  for  its  delightful 
climate,  its  beautiful  scenery,  and  its  historical  recollections.  He  not 
only  forgave  him,  but  sent  him  home  loaded  with  benefits.  G-eorge 
Washington  was  born  in  Virginia,  on  the  22d  of  February,  1732.  Who 
shall  ask  me  for  a  passport  at  the  grave  of  Washington  ?  True  politeness 
is  modest,  unpretending,  and  generous.  To  be  without  wants,  is  the 
prerogative  of  God  only.  It  is  too  often  the  fate  of  labor,  to  be  oppressed 
by  capital.  O  blessed  Health  !  thou  art  above  all  gold  and  jewels.  Every 
day  sends  out,  in  quest  of  pleasure  and  .distinction,  some  heir  fondled  in 
ignorance  and  flattered  into  pride.  Generally  speaking,  large  bodies  move 
slowly .t      Cats  and  dogs  catch  and  eat  rats  and  mice.l 

*  This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.     The  entire  subject  is  A  hollow  tree ;  the  entira 

Jiredicate,  sheltered  us  from  the  storm.  Tree  is  the  subject-nominative,  modified  by  the  ad- 
ectiye  hollow,  and  hollow  tree  is  modified  by  the  article  A.  Sheltered  is  the  predicate-verb, 
modified  by  the  object  us,  and  by  the  adjunct  from  the  storm.  Storm  is  modified  by  the 
article  the,  and  connected  to  sheltered  by  the  preposition  from,  t  This  is  a  simple  sentence: 
the  phrase  Generally  speaking  is  rather  independent,  though  it  stands  as  the  remnant  and 
representative  of  a  dependent  clause.  i  This  is  a  simple  sentence;  notwithstanding  it  has  a 
compound  subject,  and  a  compound  predicate  with  a  compound  object. 

Complex  Sentences. 

Ah !  who  can  tell  how  hard  it  is  to  climb 

The  steep  where  Fame's  proud  temple  shines  afar  ?o 

No  pleasure  can  be  innocent  from  which  our  health  suffers.  When 
all  is  composed  and  quiet  within  us,  the  discharge  of  our  duties  is  easy. 
A  writer  in  physic,  of  the  first  rank,  asserts  that  our  diet  is  the  chief  cause 
of  all  our  diseases.  Be  not  discontented  if  you  meet  not  with  success  at 
first  Beware  lest  thou  sin.  Show  not  your  teeth,  unless  you  can  bite. 
I  were  to  blame,  were  I  to  do  so.  As  the  flower  springs  and  perishes,  so 
does  man.  The  deeper  the  well,  the  cooler  the  water.  The  value  we  set 
upon  life,  is  seen  by  what  we  do  to  preserve  it.  Whatever  is  done  skill- 
fully, appears  to  be  done  well.  There  is  not  a  more  pleasing  emotion  in 
the  heart  than  gratitude.  I  went  because  I  was  invited.  To  chirp  is 
the  first  sound  that  a  young  bird  utters.  I  consider  a  human  soul,  with- 
out education,  like  a  marble  in  the  quarry;  which  shows  none  of  its  inhe- 
rent beauties,  until  the  skill  of  the  polisher  fetches  out  the  colors,  makes 
the  surface  shine,  and  discovers  every  ornamental  cloud,  vein,  and  spot, 
that  runs  through  it.  What  that  principle  of  life  is  which  we  call  soul ; 
how  it  is  distinguished  from  mere  animal  life ;  how  it  is  connected  with 
the  body ;  and  in  what  state  it  subsists  when  its  bodily  functions  ceaseP— 


130  ANALYSIS    OF    SENTENSES. 

are  among   those  unsolvable  questions  with  which  nature  everywhere 
abounds.       For  additional  examples,  see  pp.  120-9. 

*  This  is  a  complex  interrogative  sentence.  The  interjection  A  h  is  independent  in  con- 
struction. Who  can  tell  is  the  principal  clause ;  tioio  hard  it  is  to  climb  the  steep,  is  the 
primary  dependent  clause,  which  modifies  the  verb  can  tell,  in  the  sense  of  a  noun  in  the  ob- 
jective case  ;  and  where  Fame' s  proud  temple  shines  afar,  is  the  secondary  dependent  clause, 
modifying  steep,  in  the  sense  of  an  adjective. 

Clauses  of  Complex  Sentences  abridged  into  Phrases. 

Dependent  clauses  can  frequently  be  abridged  into  absolute  phrases,  participial 
phrases,  infinitive  phrases,  or  adjuncts. 

When  Caesar  had  crossed  the  Eubicon,  Pompey  prepared  for  battle*. 
Caesar  having  crossed  the  Rubicon,  Pompey  prepared  for  battle* .  Since 
I  had  nothing  else  to  do,  I  wentx.  Having  nothing  else  to  do,  I  went*. 
When  I  had  eaten  my  dinner,  I  returned  to  the  store.  Having  eaten 
my  dinner,  I  returned  to  the  store.  She  did  not  know  what  she  should 
say.  She  did  not  know  what  to  say.  It  was  requested  that  he  should 
stay.  He  was  requested  to  stay.  I  begged  him  that  he  would  go  with 
us.  I  begged  him  to  go  with  us.  You  will  suffer  from  cold,  if  you  re- 
main here.  You  will  suffer  from  cold,  by  remaining  here.  As  we 
approached  the  house,  we  saw  that  the  enemy  were  retreating.  On 
approaching  the  house,  we  saw  the  enemy  retreating. 

Compound  Sentences. 

What  in  me  is  dark,  illumine ;  what  is  low,  raise  and  support.* 
Times  change,  and  we  change  with  them.  Connecticut  river  yields 
the  best  shad,  and  Connecticut  girls  know  best  how  to  cook  them.  At 
this  he  laughed,  and  so  did  we  :  the  jests  of  the  rich  are  ever  successful. 
He  said  nothing  more,  nor  did  I.  To  be  content  with  what  is  sufficient, 
is  the  greatest  wisdom ;  and  he  who  increases  his  riches,  increases  his 
cares ;  but  a  contented  mind  is  a  hidden  treasure  which  trouble  can  not 
find.  The  son,  as  well  as  the  father,  is  expert  in  business.  Strong 
proofs,  not  a  loud  voice,  produce  conviction.  The  slothful  man  is  a  bur- 
den to  himself;  he  loiters  about,  and  knows  not  what  to  do;  his  days 
pass  away  like  the  shadow  of  a  cloud,  and  he  leaves  behind  him  no  mark 
for  remembrance ;  his  body  is  diseased  for  want  of  exercise ;  his  mind  is 
darkened,  and  his  thoughts  are  confused ;  he  wishes  for  action  without 
the  power  to  move,  and  longs  for  knowledge  but  has  no  application.  A 
rose — I  know  not  how  it  came  there — lay  on  my  book. 

Man  is  the  rugged  lofty  pine, 

That  frowns  o'er  many  a  wave-beat  shore; 

Woman's  the  slender,  graceful  vine 

Whose  clasping  tendrils  round  it  twine, 
And  deck  its  rough  bark  sweetly  o'er.f 

*  This  is  a  compound  imperative  sentence,  consisting  of  two  complex  members.  The  sub  • 
ject  of  the  first  member  is  thou  understood;  the  entire  predicate  is  illumine  what  in  nw  is 
dark,  and  the  predicate-verb  is  illumine,  modified  by  what  in  rrte  is  dark,  as  the  entire  ob- 
ject, and  by  that,  comprehended  in  what,  as  the  simple  object;  that  is  modified  by  the  adjunct 
in  me.  Which,  comprehended  in  what,  is  the  subject  of  the  dependent  clause,  and  is  dark  is 
the  predicate.  (Thus  analyze  the  rest.)  t  This  is  a  compound  declarative  sentence,  con- 
sisting of  two  complex  members,  of  which  the  final  clause  in  the  latter  has  a  compound 
predicate. 


GRAYS    ELEGY.  131 


ELEGY 

WRITTEN    IN   A   COUNTRY   CHURCHYARD.* 

1. 

The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day ; 

The  lowing  herd  winda  slowly  o'er  the  lea; 
The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 

And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. 
2. 
Now  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  sight, 

And  all  the  air  a  solemn  stillness  holds, 
Save  where  the  beetle  wheels  his  droning  flight, 

And  drowsy  tinklings  lull  the  distant  folds ; 
3. 
Save  that,  from  yonder  ivy-mantled  tower, 

The  moping  owl  does  to  the  moon  complain 
Of  such,  asb,  wandering  near  her  secret  bower, 

Molest  her  ancient,  solitary  reign. 
4. 
Beneath  those  rugged  elms,  that  yew-tree's  shade, 

Where  heaves  the  turf  in  many  a  mouldering  heap, 
Each  in  his  narrow  cell  forever  laid, 

The  rude  forefathers  of  the  hamlet  sleep. 
5. 
The  breezy  call  of  incense-breathing  Morn, 

The  swallow  twittering  from  the  straw-built  shed, 
The  cock's  shrill  clarion,  or  the  echoing  horn, 

No  more  shall  rouse  them  from  their  lowly  bed. 
G. 
For  them  no  more  the  blazing  hearth  shall  burn, 

Or  busy  housewife  ply  her  evening  care  ; 
No  children  run  to  lisp  their  sire's  return, 

Or  climb  his  knees  the  envied  kiss  to  share. 
7. 
Oft  did  the  harvest  to  their  sickle  yield, 

Their  furrow  oft  the  stubborn  glebe  has  brokec; 
How  jocund  did  they  drive  their  team  afield  ! 

How  bowed  the  woods  beneath  their  sturdy  stroke ! 

*  Taken  from  the  author's  last  edition,  and  carefully  compared  with  the  most  important 
editions  issued  since. 

(n)  See  Kerl's  Comprehensive  Grammar,  p.  211.  (b)  As  is  generally  a  relative  pronoun, 
after  such,  many,  or  same ;  and  that  is  a  relative  pronoun,  when  it  has  the  sense  of  who, 
to  horn,  or  which.      («)  See  Coinp.  Grain.,  p.  334. 


132  gray's  elegy. 

8. 
Let  not  Ambition  mock  their  useful  toil, 

Their  homely  joys,  and  destiny  obscure ; 
Nor  Grandeur  hear,  with  a  disdainful  smile, 
The  short  and  simple  annals  of  the  poor. 
9. 
The  boast  of  heraldry,  the  pomp  of  power, 

And  all  that  beauty,  all  that  wealth,  e'er  gave, 
Await  alike  the  inevitable  hour  : 

The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave. 
10. 
Nor  you,  ye  proud,  impute  to  these  the  fault, 
•  -If  Memory  o'er  their  tomb  no  trophies  raise, 
"Where  through  the  long-drawn  aisle  and  fretted  vault 
The  pealing  anthem  swells  the  note  of  praise. 
11. 
Can  storied  urn  or  animated  bust 

Back  to  its  mansion  call  the  fleeting  breath  ? 
Can  Honor's  voice  provoke  the  silent  dust, 
Or  Flattery  soothe  the  dull,  cold  ear  of  death? 
12. 
Perhaps  in  this  neglected  spot  is  laid 

Some  heart  once  pregnant  with  celestial  fire ; 
Hands  that  the  rod  of  empire  might  have  swayed, 
Or  waked  to  ecstasy  the  living  lyre. 
13. 
But  Knowledge  to  their  minds  her  ample  page, 

Rich  with  the  spoils  of  time,  did  ne'er  unroll ; 
Chill  Penury  repressed  their  noble  rage, 
And  froze  the  genial  current  of  the  soul. 
14. 
Full  many  a  gem  of  purest  ray  serene, 

The  dark,  unfathomed  caves  of  ocean  bear ; 
Fuil  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen, 
And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air. 
15. 
Some  village  Hampden,  that,  with  dauntless  breast, 

The  little  tyrant  of  his  field  withstood — 
Some  mute,  inglorious  Milton, here  may  rest; 
Some  Cromwell,  guiltless  Of  his  country's  blood. 
16. 
The  applause  of  listening  senates  to  command, 

The  threats  of  pain  and  ruin  to  despise, 
To  scatter  plenty  o'er  a  smiling  land, 

And  read  their  history  in  a  nation's  eyes, 


GRAY'S    ELEGY.  133 

17. 

Their  lot  forbade  ;  nor  circumscribed  alone 

Their  growing  virtues,  but  their  crimes  confined, — 

Forbade  to  wade  through  slaughter  to  a  throne, 
And  shut  the  gates  of  mercy  on  mankind ; 

18. 
The  struggling  pangs  of  conscious  truth  to  hide, 

To  quench  the  blushes  of  ingenuous  shame, 
Or  heap  the  shrine  of  luxury  and  pride 

With  incense  kindled  at  the  Muse's  flame. 

19. 

Far  from  the  madding  crowd's  ignoble  strife, 

Their  sober  wishes  never  learned  to  stray ; 
Along  the  cool,  sequestered  vale  of  life 

They  kept  the  noiseless  tenor  of  their  way. 

20. 

Yet  ev'n  these  bones  from  insult  to  protect, 

Some  frail  memorial  still  erected  nigh, 
With  uncouth  rhymes  and  shapeless  sculpture  decked, 

Implores  the  passing  tribute  of  a  sigh. 

21. 

Their  name,  their  years,  spelt  by  the  unlettered  Muse, 

The  place  of  fame  and  elegy  supply ; 
And  many  a  holy  text  around  she  strews, 

That  teach*  the  rustic  moralist  to  die. 

22. 

For  who,  to  dumb  Forgetfulness  a  prey, 

This  pleasing,  anxious  being  e'er  resigned, 
Left  the  warm  precincts  of  the  cheerful  day, 

Nor  cast  one  longing,  lingering  look  behind  ? 

23. 

On  some  fond  breast  the  parting  soul  relies, 
Some  pious  drops  the  closing  eye  requires ; 

Ev'n  from  the  tomb  the  voice  of  Nature  cries, 
Ev'n  in  our  ashes  live  their  wonted  fires. 

24. 

For  thee,  who,  mindful  of  the  unhonored  dead, 

Dost  in  these  lines  their  artless  tale  relate ; 
If  chance,  by  lonely  Contemplation  led, 

Some  kindred  spirit  shall  inquire  thy  fate, — 

*  See  stanza  14 ;  and  Kerl's  Comprehensive  Grammar,  p.  834. 


134  GRAY'S    ELEGY. 

25. 

Haply  some  hoary-headed  swain  may  say, 
"  Oft  have  we  seen  him  at  the  peep  of  dawn 

Brushing  with  hasty  steps  the  dews  away, 
To  meet  the  sun  upon  the  upland  lawn. 

26. 

"There,  at  the  foot  of  yonder  nodding  beech, 
That  wreathes  its  old,  fantastic  roots  so  high, 
His  listless  length  at  noontide  would  he  stretch, 
And  pore  upon  the  brook  that  bubbles  by. 

27. 
"Hard  by  yon  wood,  now  smiling  as  in  scorn, 

Muttering  his  wayward  fancies  he  would  rove ; 
Now  drooping,  woeful  wan,  like  one  forlorn, 

Or  crazed  with  care,  or  crossed  in  hopeless  love. 

28. 
"One  morn  I  missed  him  on  the  customed  hill, 
Along  the  heath,  and  near  his  favorite  tree ; 
Another  came  ;  nor  yet  beside  the  rill, 

Nor  up  the  lawn,  nor  at  the  wood,  was  he. 

29. 

"The  next,  with  dirges  due,  in  sad  array, 

Slow  through  the  church-way  path  we  saw  him  borne  ;- 
Approach  and  read  (for  thou  canst  read)  the  lay 
Graved  on  the  stone  beneath  yon  aged  thorn." 

The   Epitaph. 

30. 

Here  rests  his  head,  upon  the  lap  of  Earth, 
A  youth  to  Fortune  and  to  Fame  unknown  ; 

Fair  Science  frowned  not  on  his  humble  birth, 
And  Melancholy  marked  him  for  her  own. 

31. 

Large  was  his  bounty,  and  his  soul  sincere, 
Heaven  did  a  recompense  as  largely  send ; 

He  gave  to  Misery  (all  he  had)  a  tear, 

He  gained  from  Heaven  ('twas  all  he  wished)  a  friend. 

32. 

No  farther  seek  his  merits  to  disclose, 

Or  draw  his  frailties  from  their  dread  abode, 

(There  they  alike  in  trembling  hope  repose,) 
The  bosom  of  his  father  and  his  God. 

Gray. 


PROSODY.  135 


14.    PROSODY. 

Punctuation. 

Punctuation   treats  of  the  points  or  marks  used  in  writing  and 
printing. 

The  principal  marks  of  punctuation  are  the  following  twelve  : — 

Period ( . ), 

Colon (:), 

Semicolon ( \ ), 

Comma (  , ), 

Interrogation-point (  ? ), 

Exclamation-point ( ! ), 


Dash (  —  ), 

Carves (  (  ) ), 

Brackets (  [  ]  ), 

Hyphen \»X 

Quotation-marks ( "  "  )  or  (  '  ' ), 

Underscore ( ). 

The  period  is  put  at  the  end  of  the  sentence ;  the  colon,  the  semicolon, 
and  the  comma,  are  used  within  it.  The  period  is  the  greatest  pause- 
mark,  the  colon  the  next,  the  semicolon  the  next,  and  the  comma  tne 
least 

Ex. — M  Some  bocks  are  to  be  tasted,  others  to  be  Bwallowed,  and  some  few  to 
be  chewed  and  digested :  that  is,  some  books  are  to  be  read  only  in  parts ;  others 
to  be  read,  but  not  curiously ;  and  some  few  to  be  read  wholly  and  with  dili- 
gence."— Bacon. 

The  period  is  put  at  the  end  of  every  phrase  or  sentence  complete 
by  itself,  and  not  interrogative  or  exclamatory ;  also  after  abbreviations. 

Ex. — "  John  W.  Kinggold,  Esq.,  addressed  the  assembly." 

The  colon  is  followed  by  something  that  has  been  formally  prom- 
ised ;  or  by  what  adds,  to  an  already  complete  sentence,  an  important  re- 
mark, illustration,  or  conclusion. 

Ex. — "  Of  cruelty  to  animals  let  the  reader  take  the  following  specimen :  •  Ban- 
ning an  iron  hook  into  the  intestines  of  a  live  animal ;  presenting  this  animal  to 
another  as  his  food ;  and  then  pulling  up  this  second  creature,  and  suspending 
him  by  the  barb  in  his  stomach.  ' — Sidney  Smith. 

"  Study  to  acquire  the  habit  of  thinking  :  no  study  is  more  important." 

In  formal  letters  or  documents,  it  is  now  generally  placed  after  the  in- 
troductory address ;    but,  in  the  familiar  style,  the  comma,  or  the  comma 
with  the  dash,  is  commonly  preferred. 
Ex. — "Hon.  Edward  Everett. 

"Dear  Sir: 

-  "  I  thank  you  for  your,  etc. 

"  Joseph  Story." 
"  Dear  Sir, 

"  The  latest  news  from  Boston,  giving  information  of,  etc. 

"James  Madison." 
"  George  W.  Taylor,  Esq. 

"Dear  Sir, 

"  As  you  write  me  to  give,"  etc 
"  George  "W.  Taylor,  Esq. — Dear  Sir :  As  you  write  mo  to  give  my  opinion,", 
jtc—T/ie  Printer. 

The  semicolon  separates  parts  of  a  sentence  that  are  too  closely 
related  for  the  colon,  and  too  loose  in  sense  for  the  comma,  or  that  have 
the  comma  within  them ;  and  sometimes  it  separates  clauses  or  phrases 
similarly  construed,  and  accumulated  into  one  sentence. 

Ex.— "  That  the  world  is  overrun  with  vice,  can  not  be  denied ;  but  vice,  how- 
ever predominant,  has  not  yet  gained  unlimited  dominion."—  Johnson.    "He  is, 


136  PROSODY. 

indeed,  a  horse  ;   and  all  other  jades  you  may  call  beasts. — Shakespeare.    "  Every 

thing  has  its  time  to  nourish  ;  every  thing  grows  old;  every  thing  passes  away. 

"  Though  deep,  yet  clear ;  though  gentle,  yet  not  dull." — Denham. 

The  comma  is  used  where  a  slight  pause  is  needed. 

1 .  Three  or  more  serial  terms,  or  two  terms  without  their  connective, 
are  separated  by  the  comma. 

Ex. — "Hedges,  groves,  orchards,  and  gardens,  were  in  bloom."  "Far  above 
us  towered  an  irou-bound  coast,  dark,  desolate,  barren,  and  precipitous,  against 
which  the  long,  rolling  swell  of  the  Pacific  broke  with  a  dull  and  disheartening 
roar."  So?  where  the  verb  is  understood  ;  as,  "  Indolence  produces  poverty  ;  and 
poverty,  misery." 

Two  long  predicate  phrases,  even  when  the  conjunction  is  expressed,  are  also  generally 
separated ;  as,  "  The  prairies  of  Iowa  are  covered  with  a  rich  coat  of  grass,  and  not  unfre- 
quently  interspersed  with  hazel  thickets." 

2.  Two  parts,  when  contrasted  or  emphatically  distinguished,  or  when 
a  part  of  one  might  be  improperly  referred  also  to  the  other,  are  separated 
by  the  comma. 

Ex. — "  To  soften,  not  to  wound,  the  heart."  "  It  is  used  so,  but  erroneously." 
"He  holds,  and  ever  has  held,  the  legal  title."  "  Othello,  and  Prince  Hamlet." 
"He  retreated,  and  loaded  his  gun." 

«5.  A  word,  phrase,  or  clause,  that  is  parenthetic,  or  that  breaks  the 
connection  of  parts  closely  related,  is  set  off  by  the  comma. 

Ex. — "  Moral  culture,  especially  in  youth,  is  of  the  greatest  importance."  "  They 
set  out  early,  and,  before  the  dawn  of  day,  arrived  at  the  destined  place."  "Ad- 
jectives, when,  something  depends  on  them,  should,  with  their  adjuncts,  be  set  off  by 
the  comma." 

4.  A  phrase  used  as  an  adverbial  or  adjective  element  and  adding  a 
distinct  idea,  is  set  off  by  the  comma  when  it  is  not  in  close  connection 
with  what  it  modifies,  and  especially  when  removed  from  it  by  inversion. 

Ex. — "  In  a  central  region,  |  midway  on  the  continent,  |  though  somewhat  nearer 
the  Pacific  than  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  \  at  an  elevation  of  nearly  7,500  feet,  |  lies  the 
remarkable  valley  of  Mexico,  encircled  by  a  colossal  rampart  of  the  hardest  rocks,  \ 
and  foi"ming  a  circumference  of  about  67  leagues,  \  with  a  sky  of  the  deepest  blue,  a 
serene  atmosphere,  and  a  magnificent  landscape.    Apply,  also,  rules  3d,  2d,  and  1st. 

But  when  such  a  phrase  is  merely  restrictive,  and  stands  in  close  connection 
with  what  it  modifies,  it  is  not  usually  set  off ;  as,  "  Gladly  would  I  pour  into  thy 
bosom  |  the  balm  of  consolation."  What  is  restrictive,  merely  modifies  an  idea;  what 
is  not  restrictive,  adds  an  idea,  or  is  explanatory. 

5.  Independent  or  absolute  words,  and  words  in  apposition,  are  gen- 
erally, with  what  belongs  to  them,  set  off  by  the  comma.     See  pp.  68,  69,  72. 

Ex. — "  And  so,  Bon  Gomez,  you  will  accompany  us."  "  Shame  being  lost,  all 
virtue  is  lost."     "  0,  yes,  sir,  I  do."     "Paul,  the  apostle  of  the  Gentiles" 

6.  A  merely  explanatory  noun  after  or,  or  a  part  relating  to  each  of 
two  or  more  separated  parts,  is  set  off  by  the  comma. 

Ex. — "  The  marmot,  or  ground-hog,  resembles  the  raccoon."  "  This  is  the  first, 
though  perhaps  not  the  best,  of  my  books." 

7.  The  comma  is  used  to  separate  the  clauses  of  a  compound  sen- 
tence, when  they  are  too  closely  related  for  the  semicolon. 

Ex. — "  Columbus,  who  discovered  America,  was  a  Genoese."  "  There  moun- 
tains rise,  and  circling  oceans  flow." 

But  when  a  clause  or  phrase  is  restrictive,  that  is,  depends  closely  on 
something  else,  in  the  sense  of  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb,  it  is 
not  set  off. 

Ex. — "  He  was  a  man  J  whom  nothing  could  turn  aside  from  the  path  |  which 


PROSODY.  137 

duty  pointed  out."    (Restrictive  relative  clauses.)     "I  will  sell  you  whatever  yon 
wish  to  buy."    "  It  is  probable  tliat  you  are  very  nearly  right."  "Go  when  it  suits  you." 

8.  When  the  entire  subject  is  a  clause,  or  a  long  participial  or  infinitive 
phrase;  when  it  has  a  clause,  a  long  adjunct  or  other  similar  phrase,  or  p  ,rts 
requiring  the  comma;  when  it  ends  with  a  verb,  or  with  a  noun  that  might  im- 
properly be  read  as  the  nominative ;  or  when  a  word  precedes  the  verb,  that 
would  otherwise  be  of  doubtful  character  or  reference, — it  seems  best  to  separate 
the  subject  from  its  predicate. 

Ex. —  '  That  one  bad  example  spoils  many  good  precc  pts,  is  well  known."  "  He  that  has 
much  nose,  thinks  every  one  speaks  of  it."  M  Whatever  improves  him,  delights  him."  "  To 
be  totally  indifferent  to  praise  or  censure,  is  a  real  defect  in  character."  "For  me  to  furnish 
him  so  large  and  expensive  an  outfit,  is  utterly  impossible."  "His  having  been  seen  in  the 
neighborhood,  was  the  ground  of  suspicion."  '"Honor,  wealth,  and  pleasure,  seduce  the 
heart."  "  Necessity,  that  great  excuse  for  human  frailty,  breaks  through  all  law."  There  is 
a  strong  tendency  to  omit  the  comma  from  before  the  predicate  of  such  sentences  as  the  first 
seven  of  the  foregoing. 

9.  When  the  predicate-nominative  is  a  long  clause  or  infinitive  phrase,  and 
immediately  follows  the  verb  6e,  it  is  usually  set  off  by  the  comma,  especially 
when  it  has  the  air  of  importance,  and  might  be  made  the  subject. 

Ex. — "  One  of  the  greatest  secrets  in  composition  is,  to  know  when  to  be  simple."  "  The 
consequence  is,  that  most  animals  have  acquired  a  fear  of  man."  "  The  question  that  is  to 
be  discussed  to-night,  is,  *  Would  the  Exteusion  of  our  Territory  endanger  the  Perpetuity  of 
our  Government?'  " 

The  interrogation-point  is  placed  after  every  direct  question. 

Ex.—"  What  books  do  you  like  best?"  But,  "He  asked  me  what  books  I 
like  best." 

The  exclamation-point  is  placed  after  what  expresses  some 
sudden  or  strong  feeling ;  as,  surprise,  wonder,  joy,  grief,  anger,  or  horror. 

Ex. — "  Left  his  bed  and  board!    He  never  had  any !" 

It  is  also  placed  after  unusually  earnest  or  solemn  addresses,  and  gen- 
erally after  interjections. 

Ex. — "  Spare  me,  O  merciful  God  1"  "  Ah  !  few  shall  part  where  many 
meet." 

The  dash  generally  denotes  emphasis  or  unusual  structure. 

1.  It  is  placed  after  what  is  left  unfinished,  generally  from  interruption. 
Ex. — "  'Herb  lies  the  great1 — False  marble  !  where?" — Young. 

2.  It  is  generally  used  in  sentences  that  are  fragmentary  and  emo- 
tional. 

Ex. — "  The  pulse  fluttered — stopped — went  on — throbbed — stopped  again — 
moved— stopped.— Shall  I  go  on  ?— No." — Sterne. 

3.  It  is  used  to  show  an  unexpected  turn  in  the  sentence;  and,  in 
dialogue  without  names  or  breaks,  it  marks  the  transition  from  one  speaker 
to  another.     See  last  example. 

Ex. — "  If  thou  art  he,  so  much  respected  once — but,  oh !  how  fallen  !  how  de- 
graded !" — Milton. 

4.  It  is  now  generally  used  to  set  off  a  parenthesis,  especially  when 
emphatic,  or  when  there  are  other  points  within  it. 

Ex. — "  He  was  dressed — and,  indeed,  so  were  they  nearly  all— in  coarse  home- 
ipun." 

5.  It  is  often  used  before  echoes,  or  where  that  is  or  namely  is  under- 
stood ;  and  also  after  a  loose  series  of  particulars,  leading  to  an  important 
conclusion. 

Ex. — "  Angry  thoughts  canker  the  mind  to  the  worst  temper  in  the  world,—* 
that  of  fixed  malice  and  revenge."    See  8th  rule,  under  comma. 


138  PROSODY. 

6.  It  is  placed  after  side-heads,  and  generally  before  authorities  when 
m  the  same  line  with  the  end  of  the  paragraph. 

Ex. — "  The  Abuse  of  the  Imagination. — He  who  can  not  command  Lis  thoughts, 
must  not  hope  to  control  his  actions." — Jane  Taylor. 

The  curves  enclose  something  thrown  in  hastily  or  incidentally,  and  so 
little  related  to  the  chief  matter  that  it  may  be  omitted. 

Ex. — •*  Pride,  in  some  disguise  or  other  (often  a  secret  to  the  proud  man  him- 
self), is  the  most  ordinary  spring  of  action  among  men." — John  Wilson. 

The  brackets  [the  writer  means  the  hooks  used  in  printing]  enclose 
what  is  inserted  by  another  person ;  but  authors  sometimes  enclose  with  them 
their  own  explanations,  especially  when  these  stand  detached,  or  by  themselves. 
[Brachium,  in  Latin,  denotes  an  arm.] 

The  liy'plieil  is  placed  at  the  end  of  a  syllable  of  a  word  so  long  that  a 
part  of  it  must  be  put  into  the  next  line.  It  is  also  used  to  separate  the  parts 
of  compound  words  that  do  not  coalesce,  in  pronunciation,  like  mere  syllables 
of  the  same  word ;  as,  tender-hearted,  electro-magnetism. 

The  quotation-marks  enclose  what  is  formally  presented  as  the  lan- 
guage of  another  person.  :i  Single  quotation-marks  enclose  a  '  quotation  within 
a  quotation'." 

The  imderscore  is  a  line  used  only  in  writing.  It  is  drawn  under 
words  once,  to  denote  slanting  or  Italic  letters;  twice,  to  denote  small  cap- 
itals ;   three  times,  to  denote  CAPITALS ;  and  four  times,  to  denote  IT  ALIO 


CAPITALS.     "Words  are  thus  printed  for  the  sake  of  emphasis  or  distinction. 

Capital  Letters. 

[This  subject  does  not  properly  belong  to  either  Punctuation  or  Prosody.  It  is  inserted  here, 
merely  because  this  seems  the  best  place  for  it.] 

A  capital  letter  should  begin — 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  distinct  sentence  or  phrase. 

2.  The  first  word  of  every  direct  quotation  or  saying.     See  p.  103. 

3.  The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry.     See  p.  131. 

4.  Every  name  of  the  Deity  ;  as,  the  Almighty,  the  Supreme  Being. 

Also  personal  pronouns  when  applied  to  the  Deity,  except  when  used  in  connection  with 
their  antecedents ;  as,  M I  turn  to  Thee."     "  God  provides  for  all  his  creatures." 

5.  Every  proper  name,  and  the  titles  that  may  be  used  with  it ;  each 
chief  word  of  a  phrase  used  like  a  proper  name ;  and  most  words  derived 
from  proper  names. 

6.  Titles  of  office,  honor,  or  distinction ;  also  any  very  important  word, 
especially  when  it  denotes  the  principal  subject  of  discourse. 

7.  The  name  of  an  object  personified,  when  it  is  used  like  a  proper 
noun  ;  as,  "  O  Grave  !  where  is  thy  victory  ?" 

8.  The  words  /  and  0  should  always  be  capitals. 

Figures. 

A  met'aplior  is  the  name  of  one  object  given  to  another,  on  ac- 
count of  some  resemblance  between  the  objects. 

Ex. — "  The  ear  of  a  pot"  looks  like  an  ear  on  a  head  ;  hut  the  "  key  of  an  arith- 
metic" does  not  look  like  a  key,  yet  it  serves  to  unlock  the  mysteries  of  the  arith- 
metic.    "  Life  is  an  isthmus  between  two  eternities." 

A  metou'ymy  is  the  name  of  one  object  given  to  another,  on  ac- 
count of  some  relation  between  the  objects.     The  chief  of  these  relations 


PROSODY.  139 

are  those  of  cause  and  effect,  container  and  thing  contained,  sign  and  thing 


Ex. — "  I  have  read  Shakespeare;"  i.  e.,  his  works.    "  We  drank  but  one  bottle;" 
i.  e.,  what  was  in  one  bottle.     "  My  son,  give  me  thy  heart;"  i.  e.,  thy  affections. 
"  Here  the  sward  and  sceptre  rust ; 
Earth  to  earth,  and  dust  to  dust !" — Groly. 

Synec'doclic  is  the  figure  by  which  we  give  the  name  of  a  part 
to  the  whole,  or  that  of  the  whole  to  a  part. 

Ex. — "  We  bought  a  hundred  head  of  sheep."  "  Give  us,  this  day,  our  daily 
bread  ;"  i.  e.,  our  food.     "  They  paid  my  price  in  paltry  gold  ;"  *.  e.,  in  money. 

Nearly  one  half  of  all  the  meanings  of  words  are  but  faded  figures, — ■ 
faded  metaphors,  faded  metonymies,  faded  synecdoches. 

Versification. 

Versification  is  the  act  or  the  art  of  making  verse. 

Verse  is  beautiful  language  keeping  time  like  music. 

Verse  consists  of  measured  lines,  each  having  seldom  les3  than  two  syl- 
lables or  more  than  twenty-two. 

Each  measure  consists  of  two  or  three  syllables,  has  a  stress,  or  accent, 
on  the  first  or  the  last  syllable,  and  is  called  a  foot. 

The  principal  feet  are  four ;  the  iambus,  the  anapest,  the  trochee,  and 
the  dactyl 

Iambic  verse  is  divisible  into  little  portions  of  two  syllables  each,  accented 
on  the  second  syllable ;  anapestic  verse,  of  three  syllables  each,  accented  on 
the  last  syllable;  trochaic  verse,  of  twe  syllables  each,  accented  on  the 
first  syllable ;  and  dactylic  verse,  of  three  syllables  each,  accented  on  the 
first  syllable. 

Iambic  Verse.— 1.  Afar.  2.  The  stars  shone  bright.  3.  Thou  moon  that  nil'st 
the  night.  4.  The  woods  are  hushed,  the  waters  rest.  5.  How  sweet,  at  eve,  the 
village  murmur  rose  !  6.  The  dew  was  falling  fast,  the  stars  began  to  blink.  7. 
The  flames  that  Jit  the  battle's  wreck,  shone  round  him  o'er  the  dead. 

Anapestic  Verse.— 1.  Erom  afar.  2.  Like  a  rose  pearled  in  dew.  3.  I  am  mon- 
arch of  all  I  survey.    4.  At  the  close  of  the  day  when  the  hamlet  is  still. 

Trochaic  Verse.— 1.  Turning.  2.  Gently  flowing.  3.  Go  where  glory  waits 
th6e.  4.  Do  not  say  that  life  is  fleeting.  5.  Come,  O.  come  with  me  ;  the  moon 
is  beaming.  ^  6.  On'  a  mountain  stretched  beneath  a  hoary  willow.  7.  L£t  us  seek 
the  grassy  bank  by  lofty  maples  shaded.  8.  Beams  of  noon,  like  burning  lances, 
through  the  tree-tops  flash  and  glisten. 

Dactylic  Verse.— 1.  Fearfully.  2.  Bird  of  the  wilderness.  3.  Pleasures  in  end- 
less variety.    4.  Could  he  but  have  a  glimpse  into  futurity. 

To  each  of  the  foregoing  species  of  lines,  we  sometimes  find  a  part  of 
another  foot  added. 

Ex. — "  Restless  mortals  toil  for  ndvght." 

"  Ear  adown  the  long  aisle  sacred  music  is  stream-*^." 

Most  verse  is  still  further  divided  into  agreeable  portions,  by  making 
some  of  the  feet,  or  parts  of  feet,  answer  to  each  other  by  similarity  of 
sound.  These  corresponding  sounds  are  called  rhymes,  and  they  occur  usu- 
ally at  the  ends  of  the  lines.    Terse  that  has  no  rhyme,  is  called  blank  verse. 


What  can  you  say  of  Punctuation  ?  The  points  in  general  ?  The  period  ?  The  colon  ? 
The  semicolon?  The  comma?  The  interrogation-point?  The  exclamation-point?  The 
flush?  The  curves?  Tho  brackets?  The  hyphen?  The  underscore?  Capital  letters? 
Metaphor?  Metonymy?  Synecdoche?  The  meanings  of  words ?  Versification?  Yer.se? 
Feet?  Iambic  verse?  Anapestic?  Trochaic?  Dactylic?  Examples.  Of  syllables  that 
overrun  the  line  ?    Rhyme  ?    Blank  verse 't 


140  CAPITAL    LETTERS. EXERCISES. 

US-  The  subject  of  capital  letters  and  that  of  punctuation,  when  taught  merely  by  rules,  and  a 
few  examples  to  illustrate  them,  are  not  sufficiently  tangible  to  be  comprehended  by  pupils  ;  I  have 
therefore  annexed  a  series  of  exercises,  that,  I  trust,  will  teach  the  pupil  more  about  these  things  than 
is  generally  learned  from  grammars. 

Capital  Letters.— Exercises. 

Copy  the  following  examples,  and  apply  the  rules  given  owp.l38/or  the  use  of  cap- 
ital letters  ;  also  correct  the  examples  which  are  incorrect,  or  the  paragraphs  which  fol- 
low the  stars: — 

1 .  No,  my  son ;  a  life  of  independence  is  generally  a  life  of  virtue.  It  is  that 
which  fits  the  soul  for  every  generous  flight  of  humanity,  freedom,  and  friend- 
ship. Do  not  serenity,  health,  and  plenty  attend  the  desire  of  rising  by  labor  ? 
Lovely,  far  more  lovely,  is  the  sturdy  gloom  of  laborious  poverty  than  the  fawn- 
ing smile  of  flattery ;  and  the  man  who  can  thank  himself  alone  for  the  happi- 
ness he  enjoys,  is  truly  blest. 

*  this  terrible  chasm  must  be  filled  up.  but  how  ?  here  is  a  list  of  proprie- 
tors, choose  from  the  wealthiest,  in  order  that  the  smallest  number  of  citizens 
may  be  sacrificed. 

"  The  gunpowder  overboard !     Out  with  the  boat.     Here." 

*  for  Rent  or  Sale.       total,  $25.       balance,  $9.25. 

Exercises. 

2.  Solomon  said,  "  Pride  goeth  before  destruction."  They  shouted,  "  Vic- 
tory !"  He  answered,  No.  Christianity  does  not  spread  a  feast  before  us,  and 
then  come  with  a  "Touch  not,  taste  not,  handle  not."  One  truth  is  clear: 
Whatever  is,  is  right. 

Resolved,  That  we  endorse  the  course  pursued  by  our  delegates,  etc. 

*  Eemember  this  ancient  maxim :  "  know  thyself."  And,  "  this  to  me !" 
he  said.  Every  tongue  shall  exclaim  with  heart-felt  joy,  welcome,  welcome  I 
La  Fayette.  The  question,  then,  will  naturally  arise,  how  is  the  desired  im- 
provement to  be  effected  ?       Ah !  that  maternal  smile,  it  answers — yes. 

Be  it  enacted,  that,  after  the  1st  of  August,  1862,  a  tax,  etc. 

Exercises. 

3.  Now  bright  the  sunbeam  on  St.  Lawrence  smiles, 
Her  million  lilies,  and  her  thousand  isles. 

*  Believe  not  each  aspersing  tongue, 
as  most  weak  people  do ; 
but  still  conclude  that  story  wrong 
which  ought  not  to  be  true. 

Exercises. 

4.  The  Most  High;  the  Infinite  One;  Providence;  the  All-wise;  the  Son 
of  God ;  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ ;  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost ;  God 
and  his  angels.  To  Him  be  the  honor  and  the  glory.  Oh,  give  relief,  and 
Heaven  will  bless  your  store.  '  The  Son  of  man  shall  come  in  the  glory  of  his 
Father. 

*  The  holy  spirit ;  the  eternal ;  the  omnipotent ;  the  king  of  kings,  and  lord 
of  lords ;  the  judge  of  the  world ;  our  creator ;  our  savior ;  great  parent  of 
good.  0  thou  all-seeing  searcher  of  our  hearts !  To  him  who  is  the  friend 
of  the  widow  and  the  orphan. 

"When  the  words  heaven  and  hell  are  used  in  their  most  ordinary  sense,  they 
begin  with  small  letters ;  but  when  used  in  a  specific  sense,  or  when  Heaven 
denotes  God,  they  begin  with  capitals.  The  Indian  always  says,  "  Great  Spirit," 
or  uses  both  words  to  denote  God ;  but  when  Pope  wrote,  "  Thou  great  First 


CAPITAL   LETTERS. EXERCISES.  141 

Cause,"  he  used  great  in  its  ordinary  descriptive  sense.  The  King  of  kings  shows 
preeminently  God's  relation  to  worldly  kings ;  but  the  Angel  of  Death  does  not 
show  the  relation  of  any  angel  to  death.  The  Devil  denotes  Satan ;  but  a  devil 
may  be  simply  a  bad  person  or  spirit.  When  the  words  god,  goddess,  deity, 
divinity,  etc.,  are  applied  to  the  heathen  deities,  they  do  not  begin  with  capitals. 
"When  Muses,  Graces,  Naiads,  etc.,  are  regarded  in  the  splendor  of  ancient  im- 
agination, they  are  generally  favored  with  capitals ;  but  our  own  fairies,  sylphs, 
ghosts,  hobgoblins,  etc.,  are  rather  too  puny  and  undignified  in  idea  to  be  thus 
distinguished. 

Exercises. 

5.  Thomas,  Susan,  Dr.  Jno.  B.  Johnson,  Mrs.  Elizabeth  B.  Browning,  Mon 
day,  Tuesday,  January,  February,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  United  States, 
Sandwich  Islands,  Isle  of  Man,  Long  Island,  American,  Americanism.  Roman, 
Italics,  Christian,  Jesuits.  This  out-Herods  Herod  himself.  A  Southern  man 
is  from  the  South. 

*  george,  mary,  sunday>  friday,  kentucky,  tennessee,  august,  sept.  10th,  rev. 
henry  1.  gaylor,  mr.  jones,  north  America,  cape  fear,  Christmas,  frenchified,  irish- 
man, Columbia,  maj.  holt;   jas.  m.  marlow,  esq. 

When  words  derived  from  proper  names  have  assumed  ordinary  meanings  of 
the  language,  and  lost  their  reference  to  the  proper  names,  they  are  not  usually 
capitalized  ;  as,  turkey,  guinea,  damask,  colossal,  daguerreotype,  galvanize,  cham- 
pagne, china-ware. 

Proper  names  consist  chiefly  of  the  names  of  persons,  places,  and  time.  They  are  there- 
fore very  numerous,  amounting  to  millions.  And  since  it  is  not  always  easy  to  make  a  new 
and  acceptable  proper  name,  a  common  word  or  phrase  of  the  language,  whose  meaniug  ia 
supposed  to  suit,  is  often  taken  and  made  a  sort  of  proper  name. 

A  new  proper  name  is  often  made  from  an  old  one,  by  the  addition  of  some  com- 
mon word ;  and  tlie  common  word  then  generally  begins  with  a  capital  letter. 

Orleans,  New  Orleans;  Cambridge,  East  Cambridge;  Clinton,  Governor  Clin- 
ton ;  Jefferson,  Jefferson  City ;  Madison,  Madison  Square ;  Astor,  Astor  House ; 
Vernon,  Mount  Vernon;  Pike,  Pike's  Peak;  Mexico,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  Magel- 
lan, the  Strait  of  Magellan ;  Britain,  the  British  Channel. 

*  Rhode  island,  Miller's  landing,  lower  California,  new  Hampshire,  Japan 
sea,  Harper's  ferry,  mount  Mitchel,  Apollo  garden,  Lafayette  place,  Hudson's 
bay,  the  bay  of  Honduras,  William  and  Mary's  college,  the  Indian  ocean,  lake 
Ontario,  point  Barrow,  Cook's  inlet,  Behring'a  strait,  Queen  Charlotte's  sound. 

When  a  common  word  or  phrase  of  the  language  is  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a 
proper  name  for  a  particular  object,  the  word  or  chief  words  begin  with  capital 
letters. 

The  Park,  Salt  River,  Great  Bear  Lake,  Lake  Superior,  the  Black  Sea,  Big 
Sanely,  Land's  End,  the  Capo  of  Good  Hope,  the  United  States,  the  Western 
States,  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon,  the  Old  South  Church,  the  City  Hall,  a  book 
called— The  Temple  of  Truth. 

*  The  laurel  hills,  the  dead  sea,  white  river,  sandy  hook,  a  hill  called  cedar 
crest,  the  lake  of  the  woods,  point  lookout,  the  five  points,  pea  ridge,  the  white 
sulphur  springs,  the  rocky  mountains,  union  square,  central  park;  on  fifth  avenue, 
near  spruce  street. 

The  two  principles  jnst  given,  express  what  seems  to  he  the  hest  usage  according  to  anal, 
ogy  and  custom;  many  writers,  however,  use  not  more  capital  letters  than  seem  absolutely 
necessary  to  distinguish  the  designated  objects  from  others  of  the  same  kind. 

When  objects  are  very  common  and  comparatively  insignificant,  we  often  find 
that  only  the  specific  words,  and  not  the  general  words — especially  when  the 
latter  are  plural — begin  with  capital  letters;  as,  "in  Cass  and  Butler  counties." 
The  words  county,  township,  hill,  creek,  river,  when  used  in  connection  with  ape* 

'7 


142  CAPITAL    LETTERS. EXERCISES. 

cific  words,  are  not  generally  commenced  with  capital  letters.  Street  wo  find 
written — Fifth  Street,  Fifth  and  Madison  Streets  ;  Fifth-street,  Walnut-street,  Fifth 
and  Walnut  streets  (the  hyphen  being  omitted  from  the  plural  phrase,  to  show  tho 
common  reference  of  streets  to  the  two  words  before  it) ;  and,  lastly,  Fifth  street. 
The  first  two  modes  are  best  authorized.  The  same  remark  applies  occasionally 
to  such  words  as  place,  square,  house,  church,  etc.  But,  in  all  cases,  when  the 
specific  ward  is  also  a  common  word  of  the  language,  the  tendency  is,  to  begin  Hie 
general  word  with  a  capital  letter  too. 

Callaway  county  is  usually  called  Callaway ;  but  Kansas  City  is  not  called 
Kansas.  The  Ohio  river  is  as  well  denoted  by  the  Ohio,  which  is  a  sufficient 
name  to  call  it  by,  and  which  implies  the  word  river;  but  the  Red  River  is  not 
called  the  Red,  nor  is  the  Blue  Ridge  ever  called  the  Blue,  for  it  takes  both  words 
to  make  the  name.  The  city  of  New  York,  or  New-York  city,  is  generally  called 
New  York ;  but  Jersey  City  needs  both  words  to  make  the  name.  Van  Dieman's 
Land  is  not  the  land  belonging  to  Van  Diemen.  The  lake  of  Nicaragua  is  the 
lake  belonging  to  Nicaragua ;  but  the  Lake  of  Nicaragua  is  merely  a  name  ;  so, 
the  Grecian  Archipelago.  Crabbe's  Prairie  was  once  Crabbe's  prairie.  Sutter's 
Mill  is  now  a  little  town,  and  the  mill  is  washed  away.  The  London  Times  is  a 
newspaper,  and  London  times  are  something  else.  The  Planter's  House  is  simply 
a  hotel,  and  not  the  house  of  a  planter.  The  Missouri  railroad  is  a  railroad  in 
Missouri ;  but  the  Missouri  Railroad  could  bo  located  anywhere.  We  can  seo 
white  mountains  in  almost  any  mountainous  country ;  but  the  White  Mountains 
are  in  New  Hampshire.  The  South  Pass  denotes  not  only  a  £>ass,  but  also  a 
locality.  Niagara  Falls  means  not  merely  a  fall  of  water.  The  Erie  Canal  is 
wholly  a  name ;  but  the  Erie  and  Ohio  canal  is  understood  as  being  simply  tho 
canal  between  Lake  Erie  and  the  Ohio  river.  The  phrases  Elegy  in  a  Country 
Churchyard,  Battle  of  Hohenlinden,  TJie  Task,  are  as  much  the  names  of  particu- 
lar poems,  as  John,  James,  and  Henry,  are  the  names  of  particular  boys.  Lord's 
Day  is  equivalent  to  Sunday ;  and  Neto-  Year's  Day,  the  Fourth,  Good  Friday, 
or  any  other  holiday,  is  as  much  a  particular  day  as  Sunday,  Monday,  or  any 
other  day  of  the  week. 

Exercises. 

6.  The  President,  the  Vice-President,  the  Senate,  and  the  Ilouse  of  Repre- 
sentatives; Daniel  Webster,  Secretary  of  Stato;  the  City  Council;  the  Board  of 
Directors  for  the  Southern  Bank;  the  Vigilance  Committee;  the  Democracy  of 
New  Orleans;  the  Catholics  and  Protestants?  a  Methodist;  the  Supreme  Court: 
the  Navy  Department ;  the  Auditor  of  Public  Accounts ;  the  Tax  Bill ;  Tho 
guests  were  entertained  by  Mayor  Rice,  at  his  residence,  No.  34,  Union  Place. 
The  flag  bore  this  motto :  Tho  Union,  the  Constitution,  and  the  enforcement  of 
tho  Laws.  "  Vou  are  old,  Father  William,"  the  young  man  replied.  Begin 
your  letter  thus :  Dear  Sir,  Dear  Brother,  or,  My  dear  Aunt,  etc. 

*  Alexander  the  great ;  Charles  the  second ;  To  Jos.  Aikin,  esq. ;  To  tho 
secretary  of  the  interior  department ;  gen.  Scott  and  col.  Richardson ;  tho 
southern  states;  the  fourth  number  of  the  new  monthly ;  John  Bull  to  brother 
Jonathan. 

When  I  speak  of  the  Company  or  tho  Convention,  I  mean  to  guard  you 
against  thinking  of  the  wrong  one,  or  to  make  you  think  of  a  particular  one. 
The  Insurrection  was  printed  with  a  capital,  only  while  the  excitement  lasted; 
but  the  Revolution  and  the  Reformation  are  still  matters  of  interest,  and  retain 
their  capitals.  Our  Constitution  does  not  refer  to  our  health,  nor  does  our  State 
refer  to  our  condition.  Missouri  is  a  part  of  the  South,  though  it  lies  west.  If 
the  North,  East,  South,  and  West,  make  the  United  States,  then  one  of  these 
states  is  a  State.  The  Lunatic  Asylum  is  a  particular  and  distinguished  institu- 
tion in  our  State,  though  there  are  lunatic  asylums  in  most  parts  of  the  world. 


CAPITAL    LETTERS. EXERCISES.  143 

*  I  went  with  him  to  visit  the  Lakes;"  that  is,  a  celebrated  group  of  lakes. 
Macaulay  calls  Satan,  the  Tempter,  the  Evil  Principle ;  and  he  also  writes,  "  the 
mercenary  warriors  of  the  Peninsula,"  applying  the  word  in  a  specific  sense,  or 
to  Spain  and  Portugal.  If  I  should  use  the  phrase  Old  Dominion  as  a  specific 
substitute  for  the  proper  name  Virginia,  I  would  use  capital  letters :  but  if  I 
should  merely  call  Goldsmith's  Deserted  Village  Goldsmith's  great  poem,  I  would 
not  begin  the  latter  words  with  capitals.  We  must  often  judge  whether  the 
specific  or  titular  sense,  or  the  ordinary  meaning  of  the  words,  is  uppermost  in 
the  mind,  and  use  capitals  or  small  letters  accordingly.  Webster's  Speeches 
refers  to  a  book,  or  to  their  title ;  while  Webster's  speeches  refers  simply  to  the 
speeches.  A  chapter  in  your  history  refers  to  your  life ;  but  a  chapter  in  your 
History  refers  to  a  book  so  named.  When  I  speak  of  the  principal  of  a  school, 
I  refer  to  his  duties ;  but  when  I  speak  of  the  Principal  of  a  school,  I  refer  to 
his  title.  "  Part  I,  Remark,  Observations,  Rules  of  Spelling,"  refer  to  certain 
divisions  or  headings  of  a  book.  Our  Club,  President,  Treasurer,  and  Secretary, 
are  such  in  title  as  well  as  in  fact.  The  London  Times  says,  "  Her  Majesty,  the 
Prince  Consort,  the  Bride,  the  Prince  of  Wales,  and  other  members  of  the  Royal 
Family,  were  present."  Common  folks  would  not  have  been  thus  honored  with 
capitals.  An  astronomer  writes,  "  The  Sun  is  the  centre  of  the  System,"  be- 
cause these  capitalized  words  denote  subjects  of  which  he  treats.  And  mer- 
chants, in  their  accounts,  generally  begin  with  capital  letters  tht>  names  of  those 
things  in  which  they  deal. 

When  entire  phrases  or  sentences  are  made  headings,  or  otherwise  made  promi- 
nent, only  the  nouns,  the  descriptive  adjectives,  and  other  important  words,  are  be- 
gun with  capitals. 

Advertisement. — "  Just  published.  A  Collection  of  Songs,  Duets,  Trios,  and 
Choruses.  Together  with  a  New  and  Complete  Course  of  Elementary*Instruc- 
tion,  and  Lessons  in  Singing,  for  the  School-room  and  Social  Circle*  Price  62^ 
cents."  In  Advertisements  and  Notices,  the  liberty  of  capitalizing  is  carried  to  a 
great  and  almost  indefinite  extent. 

Exercises. 

7.  The  Wind  and  the  Sun  loved  the  Rose, 

But  the  Rose  loved  but  one  ; 
For  who  recks  the  wind  where  it  blows, 
Or  loves  not  the  sun  ? — Bulwer. 
*  I  hate  when  vice  can  bolt  her  arguments, 
And  virtue  has  no  tongue  to  check  her  pride. 
Pride,  poverty,  and  fashion,  once  undertook  to  keep  house  together. 

Exercises. 

8.  0,  I  understand  you  now. 

*  He  knew  i  was  there.       Such,  o  music  1  is  thy  heavenly  power. 


The  pupil  may  have  noticed,  that  the  names  of  the  days  of  the  week  and 
montlis  of  the  year ;  the  chief  words  in  the  titles  of  boo/cs ;  the  names  of  sects, 
parties,  and  associations ;  and,  generally,  the  names  of  public  bodies — as,  Senate 
the  General  Assembly, — are  capitalized. 

He  may  also  observe,  that  rules  1st  and  2d,  are  fundamentally  one,  applying 
to  distinct  phrases  or  sentences ;  rules  3d  and  8th,  implying  distinction ;  and 
rules  4th,  5th,  6th,  and  7th,  since  the  words  merely  designate,  or  designate  hon- 
orably, rather  than  describe  by  their  ordinary  meaning. 

Capital  letters  should  not  be  used,  where  small  letters  will  express  the  sense 
p.s  well  or  better 


144  PUNCTUATION. EXERCISES. 

Punctuation.— Exercises, 
Period. 

Copy  the  following  examples,  and  apply  the  rules ;  also  correct  what  is  incor* 
red,  or  the  paragraphs  after  the  stars : — 

As  yet,  the  forests  stand  clothed  in  their  dress  of  undecayed  magnificence. 
The  winds,  that  rustle  through  their  tops,  scarcely  dis'.urb  the  silence  of  the 
shades  below.     The  mountains  and  the  valleys  glow  in  sunlit  verdure. 

*  give,  then,  generously  and  freely  recollect,  that,  in  so  doing,  you  are  exer- 
cising one  of  the  most  godlike  qualities  in  your  nature  go  home,  and  look  at 
your  families,  smiling  in  rosy  health,  and  then  think  of  the  pale,  famine-pinched 
cheeks  of  the  poor  children  of  Ireland — S  S  Prentiss 

For  Sale.  Opinions  of  the  Press.  Dr.  Chas.  F.  Persinger,  Chairman. 
St.  Louis,  Aug.  1st,  1857.       To  the  Hon.  Jas.  Fenton. 

*  Preface  Contents  Apollo  G-arden  From  the  Gentleman's  Magazine 
"H.  Clay      Select  Speeches  of      8vo       Price  $1.00." 

Albany,  N".  Y.,  Sept.,  1860.  Henry  Holmes,  Esq.,  addressed  the  assembly. 
Sir  David  Brewster,  K.  H.,  L.L.D.,  F.  R.  S.,  L.  &  E.  I  have  two  good  reasons: 
1.  I  can  not  give  my  attention  to  it;  2.  I  have  no  money  to  invest  in  it. 
15.3  yds.  of  cloth,  for  $9.45.  (The  period  is  also  used  to  separate  decimals 
from  whole  numbers,  and  after  enumerative  figures  or  letters.) 

*  T  S  Glover,  Esq,  was  called  to  the  chair  To  Mr  and  Mrs  Lindsay  Dr 
"Wm  R  Rector,  Sup't  of  Com  Schools  On  the  4th  inst,  he  disappeared  '6  cwt 
2  qrs  5  lbs  Let  us  consider — 1  Its  soil;  2  Its  climate  40  chickens,  ® 
12c  each,  cost  $480 

Colon.— Exercises. 

Make  a  proper  use  of  time :  the  loss  of  it  can  never  be  regained. 
Make  a  proper  use  of  time ;  for  the  loss  of  it  can  never  be  regained. 

*  Avoid  affectation    it  is  a  contemptible  weakness. 

Honor  and  shame  from  no  condition  rise 
Act  well  your  part ;  there  all  the  honor  lies. 
The  grant  was  absolute  and  conclusive:  it  conceded  the  land  and  the  islands  • 
the  rivers  and  the  harbors ;  the  mines  and  the  fisheries.  (Here  the  sense  is, 
How  so?  Why  so?  Explain  more  fully  what  you  mean.)  There  are  two 
questions  which  grow  out  of  this  subject :  1st,  How  far  is  any  sort  of  classical 
education  useful  ?  2dly,  How  far  is  that  particular  classical  education  adopted 
in  this  country  useful  ? 

*  The  procession  was  as  follows  The  President,  the  Yice-President,  the 
Speaker  of  the  House,  etc.  All  our  conduct  toward  others  should  be  in- 
fluenced by  this  important  principle  Do  unto  others  as  you  would  have  them 
do  unto  you. 

This  is  the  state  of  man     to-day  he  puts  forth 
The  tender  leaves  of  hope ;  to-morrow  blossoms, 
And  bears  his  blushing  honors  thick  upon  him ; 
The  third  day  comes  a  frost,  a  killing  lrost. 

Semicolon.— Exercises. 

"Without  dividing,  he  destroyed  party ;  without  corrupting,  he  made  a  venal 
age  unanimous. 

*  The  miser  grows  rich  by  seeming  poor  but  the  extravagant  man  grows 
poor  by  seeming  rich. 

A  salad  should  be,  as  to  its  contents,  multifarious ;  as  to  its  proportions,  an 
artistic  harmony ;  as  to  its  ilavor,  of  a  certain  pungent  taste. 


PUNCTUATION. EXERCISES.  145 

*  False  in  institutions,  for  he  retrograded  false  in  policy,  for  he  debased 
folse  in  morals,  for  he  corrupted.  Listen  to  the  advice  of  your  parents  treasure 
up  their  precepts  respect  their  riper  judgment  and  endeavor  to  merit  the  appro- 
bation of  the  wise  and  good. 

This  lovely  land,  this  glorious  liberty,  these  benign  institutions,  are  ours ; 
ours  to  enjoy,  ours  to  preserve,  ours  to  transmit.  Mercer  was  upright,  intelli- 
gent, and  brave ;  esteemed  as  a  soldier  and  beloved  as  a  man,  and  by  none 
more  than  by  Washington.  He  is  my  major-domo ;  that  is,  my  steward  over 
household  affairs. 

*  Among  the  oaks  I  observed  many  of  the  most  diminutive  size  some  not 
ab^ve  a  foot  in  height,  yet  bearing  bunches  of  acorns.  Charles  the  Twelfth, 
of  Sweden  born,  1682  killed  by  a  cannon-ball,  1718.  Rio,  9  cents  Mara- 
caibo,  12  cents    Java,  15  cents. 

"I  have  always,"  says  Ledyard,  "  remarked  that  women  in  all  countries  are 
civil  ar<d  obliging ;  that  they  are  ever  inclined  to  be  gay  and  cheerful,  timorous 
and  modest ;  and  that  they  do  not  hesitate,  like  men,  to  perform  a  generous 
action." 

*  If  thou  art  a  child,  and  hast  ever  added  a  sorrow  to  the  soul  or  a  furrow 
to  the  silvered  brow  of  an  affectionate  parent  if  thou  art  a  husband,  and  hast 
ever  caused  the  fond  bosom  that  ventured  its  whole  happiness  in  thy  arms,  to 
doubt  one  moment  of  thy  kindness  or  truth  if  thou  art  a  friend,  and  hast  ever 
wronged  in  thought,  or  word,  or  deed,  the  spirit  that  generously  confided  in  thee, 
— then  be  sure  that  every  unkind  look,  every'  ungracious  word,  every  ungentle 
action,  will  come  thronging  back  upon  thy  memory,  and  knocking  dolefully  at 
thy  soul  then  be  sure  that  thou  wilt  lie  down  sorrowing  and  repentant  on  the 
grave,  and  utter  the  unheard  groan,  and  pour  the  unavailing  tear,  more  deep, 
more  bitter,  because  unavailing. 

" The  pride  of  wealth  is  contemptible;  the  pride  of  learning  is  pitiable;  the  pride  of 
dignity  is  ridiculous;  but  tlie  pride  of  bigotry  is  insupportable."  Here  the  dash  would 
have  been  too  sentimental;  the  comma  would  have  slurred  the  matter  over  too  lightly;  the 
colon  would  have  indicated  a  different  connection  in  thought;  the  period  would  have 
been  too  deliberate  ;  but  the  semicolon  gives  duo  distinction  to  the  parts,  and  the  greatest 
energy  to  the  whole. 

Comma.— Rule  I.— Exercises. 

Days,  months,  years,  and  ages,  shall  circle  away, 
And  still  the  vast  waters  above  thee  shall  roll. 
The  little,  round  buds  unfolded  into  broad  white  leaves.       From  law  arises 
security;  and  from  security,  industry. 

*  This  part  of  Arabia  is  populous  and  fertile ;  yielding  oranges  lemons 
almonds  dates  figs  raisins  honey  and  an  abundance  of  corn  cattle  sheep  and  the 
finest  of  horses.  The  little  ragged  untaught  child  made  me  think  of  the  littlo 
lonely  blossom  that  is  born  to  wintry  days.  Hamilton  was  more  declamatory 
imaginative  and  poetical ;   Burr  clear  pointed  concise  and  compact. 

The  white-washed  wall  the  nicely  sanded  floor 
The  varnished  clock  that  clicked  behind  the  door. 

"John,  James  and  William  are  going  to  town,"  implies  that  I  am  telling  John  what  the 
other  two  boys  are  doing;  and  should  therefore  be,  "John,  James,  and  William,  are  going  to 
town." 

Rule  II.— Exercises. 

Liberal,  not  lavish,  is  kind  Nature's  hand.  ¥e  often  commend,  as  well  aa 
censure,  imprudently.  "Was  it  you,  or  the  wind,  that  shut  the  door?  '  He 
should,  and  shall,  relinquish  his  claim.  Tho  gleam  of  the  ocean,  and  vast  prai- 
ries of  verdure,  were  before  me. 

*  Though  grave  yet  trifling ;  though  submissive  vain.       John  and  also  his 


146  PUNCTUATION. EXERCISES. 

eister  went  into  tho  country.  Is  ho  sick  or  well?  They  not  only  attacked 
but  also  captured  the  army  and  city.  Here  all  is  order ;  there  all  is  discord. 
'Twas  certain  he  qpuid  write  and  cipher  too.  He  went  and  addressed  the 
crowd.       The  troops  landed  and  killed  a  hundred  Indians. 

Rule  III.— Exercises. 

No  society,  of  which  moral  men  are  not  the  stamina,  can  exist  long.  There, 
lightly  swung,  in  bowery  glades,  the  honeysuckles  twine.  They  knew  their 
powers  not,  or,  as  they  learned  to  know,  perverted  them  to  evil. 

*  Burns  however  to  be  justly  judged  must  be  estimated  by  the  times  in  which 
Le  lived.  She  is  to  be  sure  a  very  amiable  woman.  A  virgin  of  eighteen  tall 
and  straight  bright  and  blooming  seems  to  our  old  age  a  very  delightful  object. 

Common  parenthetic  expressions  are  such  as  on  the  contrary,  by  no  means,  without 
doubt,  in  general,  now  and  then,  in  short,  for  the  most  part,  beyond  question,  generally 
speaking,  etc. 

Rule  IV.— Exercises. 

Tired  of  his  toilsome  flight,  and  parched  with  heat. 
He  spied,  at  length,  a  cavern's  cool  retreat. 
The  work  is  probably  not  worth  tho  labor  and  care  spent  upon  it. 

*  From  the  hills  in  his  jurisdiction  he  could  behold  across  tho  clear  waters  of 
a  placid  sea  the  magnificent  vegetation  of  Porto  Rico  which  distance  rendered 
still  more  admirable  as  it  was  seen  through  the  transparent  atmosphere  of  tho 
tropics. 

The  ship  Ann  Alexander  a  stanch  vessel  Captain  S.  Deblow  sailed  from  New 
Bedford  the  1st  of  June  1850  for  a  cruise  in  the  South  Pacific  in  search  of  whales. 

Rule  V.— Exercises. 

Friend  John,  what  is  wanted  ?  And  now,  sir,  what  is  your  conclusion  ? 
No,  no,  Gerald  ;  there  are  too  many  of  them  already.  Nocturnal  silence  reign- 
ing, a  nightingale  began.  To  be  a  merchant,  the  art  consists  more  in  getting 
paid  than  in  making  sales. 

Wept  o'er  his  wounds,  or,  tales  of  sorrow  done, 
Shouldered  his  crutch,  and  showed  how  fields  were  won. 

*  To  you  Osman  I  consign  half  the  city ;  and  to  you  Mustapha  the  remain- 
der The  terms  being  settled  he  produced  the  cash.  Front  to  front  their 
horns  locked  every  muscle  strained  they  were  fighting  as  bulls  only  can  fight. 
"Well  to  be  sure  how  much  I  have  fagged  through  1 

Rule  VI.— Exercises. 

The  skull,  or  cranium,  protects  the  brain.  Again,  we  conceive  that  natural 
religion,  though  not  a  demonstrative,  is  yet  a  progressive,  science. 

*  The  English  dove  or  cushat  is  noted  for  its  cooing  or  murmuring.  Thi3 
street  is  an  important  if  not  the  principal  highway  in  the  city. 

Rule  VII.— Exercises. 

How  wretched,  were  I  mortal,  were  my  state  1  The  rain  fell  in  Sheets,  tho 
thunder  rolled,  the  lightning  flashed  fierce  and  lurid,  and  the  wind  swept  in 
gusts  over  the  thicket  as  if  it  would  uproot  it  altogether.  f  Lis  small  group  of 
our  wounded,  who  were  left  behiud,  were  captured  by  a  paity  which  lay  in  am- 
bush. 

*  Since  life  is  short  let  us  not  be  too  solicitous  about  the  future.  The  farmer 
who  had  never  been  in  a  city  before  and  who  was  therefore  most  easily  duped 
at  once  bid  on  the  watch.       The  variety  of  wild  fruits  and  flowering  shrubs  is 


PUNCTUATION. EXERCISES.  147 

BO  groat  and  such  the  profusion  of  blossoms  with  which  they  aro  bowed  down 
that  the  eye  is  regaled  almost  to  satiety. 

Rule  VIII.— Exercises. 

"What  pleases,  soon  becomes  popular.  He  who  is  much  in  love  with  him- 
self, will  have  few  rivals.  To  be  always  attentively  observing  what  is  passing 
around  them,  is  one  of  the  means  by  which  men  improve  their  circumstances. 

*  To  maintain  a  steady  course  amid  all  the  adversities  of  life  marks  a  great 
mind.  Family  feuds  violated  friendships  and  litigation  among  neighbors  are 
the  banes  of  society.  Divide  and  conquer  is  a  golden  principle  equally  appli- 
cable in  science  and  in  policy. 

Rule  IX.— Exercises. 

But  the  question  is,  aro  tho  examples  correct  in  s.yntax?  All  that  a  man 
gets  by  lying,  is,  that  ho  is  not  believed  when  he  tells  tho  truth.  That  it  is  so, 
can  not  be  denied. 

*  The  great  mystery  about  the  theft  was  that  the  door  was  still  found  locked 
as  before.       Our  intention  is  to  start  early  in  the  morning. 


Finally,  tho  comma  is  put  after  a  word  repeated;  as,  u  Home,  home!  sweet, 
sweet  home  1"  after  a  surname  followed  by  the  given  name ;  as,  "  Tyler,  G-eorgo 
W." :  used  to  separate  numbers  into  periods;  as,  Population  of  the  United 
States,  31,443,790  :  used  to  separate  words  in  pairs,  that  aro  construed  in  pairs; 
as,  "  Old  and  young,  rich  and  poor,  high  and  low,  attended  the  meeting :" 
sometimes  used,  or  not  used,  according  as  a  word  has  a  conjunctive  or  an  ad- 
verbial sense;  as,  "On  these  facts,  then,  I  then  rested  my  argument:1'  omitted 
from  expressions  of  close  apposition;  as,  "Allen  tho  bookseller,"  "the  poet 
Milton,"  "ye  mountains.1' 

Interrogation-point.— Exercises. 

"Well,  James,  what  have  you  got  there  ?  "  They  say,  if  the  bill  is  rejected, 
Government  must  stop.  What  must  stop  ?  The  laws?  The  judicial  tribunals? 
The  legislative  bodies?  The  institutions  of  the  country?  No,  no,  sir!  all  these 
will  remain,  and  go  on."  He  asked  me  why  I  wept.  He  asked  me,  "  Why 
do  you  weep  ?"  Let  us  consider,  first,  of  what  use  will  it  bo  ?  and,  secondly, 
what  will  it  cost?  Let  us  consider,  first,  of  what  use  it  will  be;  and,  secondly, 
what  it  will  cost. 

*  "  Is  this  reason  Is  it  law  Is  it  humanity"  "  Will  you  go1'  said  he, 
u  or  will  j'ou  stay"  Is  tho  law  constitutional  is  tho  question  for  discussion^ 
Whether  tho  law  is  constitutional  is  the  question  for  discussion  Dr.  Johnson 
wrote,  "  When  Diogenes  was  asked  what  wine  lie  liked  best ?  ho  answered, 
That  which  is  drunk  at  tho  expense  of  others."  Is  this  sentence  correctly 
punctuated 

Exclamation-point.— Exercises. 

Lol  Newton,  priest  of  Nature,  shines  afar, 
Scans  the  wide  world,  and  numbers  every  star ! 
Ohome!  magical,  all-powerful  home  1  how  strong  must  have  been  thy  in- 
fluence, when  thy  faintest  memory  could  cause  these  bronzed  heroes  of  a  thou- 
sand battles  to  weep  like  children!  What,  ho!  Endymion,  sleepest  thou  so 
soundly?  Macbeth,  Macbeth,  Macbeth!  beware  McDuft!  "Banished  from 
Rome !"  What's  banished  but  set  free  from  daily  contact  of  the  things  I 
loathe  ? 

*  0  Absalom.  Absalom  my  son,  my  son  Charge,  Chester,  charge  On, 
Stanley,  on      Yoho  yoho   through  lanes,  groves,  and  villages.       Gentlemen, 


148  PUNCTUATION. EXERCISES. 

what  does  this  mean  ?  "  Chops  and  tomato  sauce.  Tours,  Pickwick."  Chops 
Gracious  heavens  And  tomato  sauce  Is  the  happiness  of  a  sensitive  and  con- 
fiding female  to  be  trifled  away  by  such  shallow  artifices  as  these  ?  Sweet 
child   lovely  child   thy  parents  are  no  more 

The  knell,  the  shroud,  the  coffin,  and  the  grave, 
The  deep  damp  vault,  the  darkness,  and  the  worm 
The  exclamation-point  is  sometimes  repeated,  for  greater  effect ;  as,  "  Selling  off  below 
oostl!  great  sacrifices  1 !  !"  The  interrogation  and  exclamation  points  are  sometimes  used 
sneeringly  to  express  the  unbelief  of  the  speaker ;  as,  "  The  measures  which  he  introduced 
to  Congress,  and  which  ought  to  have  been  carried  by  overwhelming  majorities  (?),  proved 
him  to  have  been  iu  every  sense  a  great  statesman  (!)." 

Dash.— Rule  I.— Exercises. 

Gil  Bias.  Tour  Grace's  sermons  never  fail  to  be  admired  ;  but— 
Archbishop.  It  lacked  the  strength — the — Do  you  not  agree  with  me,  sir? 
I  take— eh  1  oh! — as  much  exercise — eh! — as  I  can,  Madam  Gout  I 

Oh !  when  the  growling  winds  contend,  and  all 

The  sounding  forest  fluctuates  in  the  storm, 

To  sink  in  warm  repose,  and  hear  the  din 

Howl  o'er  the  steady  battlements 

*  She  was 

K  A  great  fooL"  said  a  trooper. 
It  was  to  inquire  by  what  title  General  but  catching  himself  Mr.  Washing- 
ton chose  to  bo  addressed. 

Rule  II.— Exercises. 

But  you  are  hungry — want  a  breakfast — turn  into  a  restaurant — call  for  ham, 
eggs,  and  coffee — then  your  bill — six  dollars  I — Travels  in  California. 

*  Another  wave  lifts  the  schooner  another  fearful  crash  she  rolls  over  her 
decks  are  rent  asunder    her  crew  are  struggling  in  the  water    all  is  over ! 

Rule  III.— Exercises. 

These  are — ah,  no ! — these  were  the  gazetteers !  Approaching  the  head  of 
the  bed,  where  my  poor  young  companion,  with  throat  uncovered,  was  lying. 
with  one  hand  the  monster  grasped  his  knife,  and  with  the  other — ah,  cousin ! 
— rwith  the  other — he  seized  a  ham,  which  hung  from  the  ceiling. 

"  I  am  told  he  is  a  man  of  excellent  understanding." — "  Is  he?" — "  Very  vir- 
tuous and  generous." — "I  believe  I  shall  like  him." — "  And  very  handsome."— 
"My  dear  papa,  say  no  more;  he's  mine — I'll  have  him." 

*  Whatever  is,  is  right.     This  world,  'tis  true, 
Was  made  for  Ciesar    but  for  Titus  too. 

In  combustibility  it  agrees  with  cannel  coal  It  does  Have  you  examined 
its  fracture    I  have 

Rule  IV.— Exercises. 

Their  female  companion — faded,  though  still  3*oung — possessed  nevertheless 
a  face  whose  expression  often  drew  my  gaze.  If  I  should  buy  the  farm, — 
though,  I  must  say,  it  is  very  uncertain  as  yet, — I  would  build  a  new  house 
upon  it. 

*  Setting  aside  a  rare  virtue  in  this  clime  her  aristocratic  pretensions,  she 
set  up  as  a  baker  for  the  public.  All  seemed  very  well ;  but  for  there  was 
one  of  those  dreadful  buis  in  the  case  but  he  had  a  very  small  amount  of 
money  to  begin  with. 

When  the  parts  separated  by  a  parenthesis  would  require  separation  by  a 
point  even  if  the  parenthesis  were  omitted,  the  point  is  placed  before  each  dash ; 
but  many  writers  use,  for  the  sake  of  simplicity,  only  the  dash. 


PUNCTUATION. EXERCISES.  149 

Rule  V.— Exercises. 

No,  sir ;  I  always  thought  Robertson  would  be  crushed  by  his  own  weight— ■ 
would  be  buried  under  his  own  ornaments.  I  gave  him  all  I  had, — my  bless- 
ing.    (See  last  sentence  under  semicolon,  p.  145.) 

*  On  this  was  he  willing  to  stake  all  he  had  character  and  life.  "Which 
is  more  five  square  feet,  or  five  feet  square  ?  The  crisp  snow  and  the  woolly 
clouds,  the  delightful  rustle  of  the  summer  forest  and  the  waving  of  the  autumn 
corn,  the  glory  of  the  sunset  and  the  wonder  of  the  rainbow  the  world  would 
have  wanted  these,  had  not  the  winds  been  taught  to  do  their  Master's  bidding. 

Rule  VI.— Exercises. 

Hcnor  and  Money. — A  French  officer  said  to  a  Swiss  officer,  "  "Why  is  it 
that  you  Swiss  are  always  hiring  yourselves  out  to  fight?"  "  And  what  do  you 
fight  for?"  replied  the  Swiss.  "For  Iwnor,  of  course,"  said  the  other.  "Then," 
resumed  the  Swiss,  "I  suppose  each  of  us  fights  for  what  ho  stands  most  in 
need  of." — Percy's  Anecdotes. 


Finally,  the  dash  is  sometimes  added  to  the  common  points  to  lengthen  the 
pause  a  little,  show  emphasis,  or  mark  transition  ;  it  is  generally  used  in  com- 
posite headings:  (see  newspapers;)  it  is  often  used  where  a  lino  is  broken  off, 
and  the  subject  is  resumed  in  the  next  lino ;  (see  p.  106  ;)  it  is  used  to  show 
omission  of  letters  or  figures  ;  (as,  pp.  11 — 3=  pp.  11,  12,  and  13  ;)  and  it  ia 
often  used  at  the  left  of  newspaper  extracts,  to  show  they  aro  such,  or  as  a 
more  modest  request  to  notice  than  the  fcW' 

Curves.— Exercises. 

The  next  day  the  landlord  inquires  (and  all  landlords  aro  inquisitive),  and 
after  inquiry  talks  (and  all  landlords  are  talkative),  concerning  the  private  busi- 
ness of  his  new  guest.  Gladiator  (Lat.  gladius,  a  sword) ;  a  sword-player,  a 
prize-fighter.  I  gave  (and  who  would  not  have  given  ?)  my  last  dollar  to  the 
poor  beggar. 

*  The  Hon.  Mr.  Spendthrift  to  borrow  a  name  from  John  Bunyan  wishes  to 

represent  the  county  of . 

Thou  idol  of  thy  parents — Hang  the  boy  1 

There  goes  my  ink. 
With  pure  heart  newly  stamped  from  Nature's  mint — 
Where  did  he  learn  that  squint? 

The  parts  enclosing  a  parenthesis  are  punctuated  as  if  they  had  it  not ; 
but,  if  a  point  is  required  after  the  first  part,  it  is  generally  placed  after  the  en- 
tire parenthesis,  or  beloro  each  curve;  and  when  the  parenthesis  itself  is  inter- 
rogative, exclamatory,  or  stands  detached,  the  proper  point  precedes  the  latter 
curve. 

Brackets.— Exercises. 

"  Ho  [Mr.  Clay]  never  wrote  such  a  letter."  (Explanation )  "  Do  you  know 
if  [whether]  he  is  at  home?"  (Correction.)  "  Abbotsford,  May  12th,"  [1820.] 
(Omission.) 

*  Lesson  LV. — Llewellen  and  his  Dog. 

A  true  story,  showing  the  lamentable  effects  of  hasty  wrath. 

The  spearman  heard  the  bugle  sound,  and  cheerily  smiled  the  morn, 

And  many  a  brach  and  many  a  hound  attend  Llewellen's  horn,  etc 

Here  the  writer  was  interrupted  by  a  visitor. 

7* 


150  PUNCTUATION. EXERCISES. 

Hyphen.— Exercises. 

Compounded. —  One  idea  rather  than  two  ;  a  different  meaning  from  that  of 
the  separated  words :  Horse-fly,  orang-outang,  gooseberry,  to-night ;  **  to  mor- 
row, straw  berry,  twenty  five,  touch  me  not  (a  flower).  A  phrase  made  an  aa- 
jective :  The  tree-and-eloud-shadowed  river ;  *  a  life  and  death  struggle.  A 
familiar  term  for  a  particular  object :  Apple-orchard,  boarding-house,  white- 
oak  ;  *  black  berry,  hummiug  bird,  rain  bow.  Imitative  words  made  of 
rhyming  or  otherwise  musical  elements :  Picnic,  sing-song,  helter-skelter ;  *  hodgo 
podge,  wishy  washy.  Foreign  phrases  not  yet  altogether  anglicized :  Piano-forte., 
camera-obscura ;  *  concavo  convex,  electro  magnetism.  Change  in  the  part  of 
speech :  The  end-all  and  the  be-all,  a  setting-forth  of;  *  a  run  away,  many  flow- 
ered. A  word  qualifying  the  icord  next  to  it,  yet  liable  to  be  referred  to  the  word 
beyond:  A  light-armed  soldier,  battle-hymns  and  dirges ;  *  the  deep  tangled 
wild  wood,  some  four  footed  animals,  New  York  Directory. 

Uncompounded. — A  mere  or  temporary  adjective,  or  noun  so  used — espe- 
cially when  equivalent  to  the  adjunct  beginning^  with  of  :  A  gold  ring  =  a  ring  of 
gold,  Malaga  wine ;  *  common-sense,  a  brick-wall.  Capitalized  phrases  made 
proper  names:  Long  Island,  Hudson's  Bay,  St.  John's  College;  *  New-York, 
Prince-Edward's- Island.  Idiomatic  phrases,  and  phrases  whose  meaning  is  kepi 
clear  by  their  syntax  :  By  and  by,  a  carefully  selected  assortment ;  *  tit-for-tat,  ill 
requited  love,  love  ill-requited.  An  element  making  compounds  with  two  or  more 
otliers  before  it,  to  show  its  common  reference — or  else  it  must  be  compounded  with 
each:  Riding  and  dancing  schools,  or,  riding-schools  and  dancing-schools;  his  son 
and  daughter  in  law,  or,  his  son-in-law  and  daughter-in-law;  the  clock  and  watch 
repairing  business;  *  Seed  and  Feed-Store;  with  fresh  water  and  land-shells. 

Hyphened.— Prefixes  before  capital  letters:  Anti- American,  Neo-Platonic ; 
°  pre  Adamite.  Prefixes  not  uniting  fluently  in  sound  with  what  they  are  joined 
to,  or  liable  to  have  their  meaning  lost :  Vice-president,  semi-cylindrical,  re-collect 
(to  collect  again) ;  *  counterrevolution,  reformation  (a  new  formation),  cooperato 
(or  else,  cooperate).  Elements  coming  in  contact  with  letters  liable  to  be  confound- 
ed :  Ant-hill,  one-eyed,  chain-shot ;  *  pineapple,  suowshoe. 

Consolidated. — Generally,  prefixes  with  what  they  are  joined  to  :  Eecon- 
struct,  wntfergraduate  ,  *  pre- possession,  under-rate.  Most  compound  words  used 
as  adverbs,  prepositions,  or  conjunctions:  Every  where,  upon,  notwithstanding ; 
*  any- where,  here-by.  Frequently,  compounds  when  again  compounded:  Quar- 
ter-master, quartermaster-general.  Elements  yielding  their  accents  to  a  new  and 
chief  accent:  Black'berry,  from  black  and  ber'ry;  *  book-seller,  run-away. 
Compounds  newly  formed  or  but  little  used,  generally  require  the  hyphen ;  but  by 
long  and  general  u<-e  they  tend  to  drop  it :  "  Steamboats  and  railroads  have  driven 
all  the  romance  out  of  travel" — Irving. 

A  crow  is  a  black  bird,  but  not  a  blackbird.  A  dog's-ear  is  the  corner  of  a 
leaf  turned  over ;  but  a  dog's  ear  is  the  ear  of  a  dog.  A  sugar  tree  is  made  of 
sugar ;  but  a  sugar-tree  is  a  maple  that  yields  sugar.  A  glass  house  is  made  of 
glass ;  but  a  glasshouse  is  a  house  in  which  glass  is  manufactured.  Many 
colored  birds  are  not  necessarily  many-colored  birds;  nor  is  a  negro  merchant 
necessarily  a  negro-merchant ;  nor  a  live  oak,  a  live-oak.  A  dancing  master  is 
simply  a  master  that  dances ;  but  a  dancing -master  teaches  dancing. 

Quotation-marks.— Exercises. 

He  is,  indeed,  "  a  bright  particular  star,"  and  will  some  day  make  his  mark 
in  the  world.  Some  of  us  have  killed  "  brown-backs"  and  "  yellow-legs" 
[birds;  as  much  as  to  say — So  the  people  call  them]  in  the  marshes. 

*  I  rise  for  information,  said  a  member  of  Congress.  I  am  very  glad  to  hear 
it,  cried  another,  sitting  by ;  for  no  one  needs  it  more. 


PUNCTUATION. EXERCISES.  151 

Underscore.— Exercises. 

We  must  fight  ;  I  repeat  it,  sir,  we  must  fight.  We  have  petitioned,  wo 
have  supplicated,  we  have  remonstrated,  we  have  PROSTRATED  ourselves  ak 
the  foot  of  the  throne. 

The  names  of  boats,  ships,  newspapers,  magazines,  and  other  periodical  lit- 
erature, are  generally  printed  in  Italics ;  also  words  used  as  the  names  of  them- 
selves, and  foreign  words  introduced  into  English. 

The  White  Cloud  arrived  yesterday.  The  poem  first  appeared  in  the  Louisville 
Journal       Woven  is  the  perfect  participle  of  weave.      They  remained  in  statu  quo. 

*  Here  I  reign  king,  and,  to  enrage  thee  more,  thy  king  and  lord.  He  was 
appointed  secretary,  pro  tern.  The  Neptune  and  the  Great  Eastern  sailed 
yesterday.       A  story  in  the  New- York  Ledger. 

Apostrophe.— Exercises. 

The  apostrophe  shows  possession  or  omission,  and  sometimes  assists  in  ex- 
pressing the  plural  number. 

Possession. — John's  book;  Mary's  bonnet;  boys'  sports;  King  James's 
Bible ;  the  men's  knapsacks ;   the  Duke  of  Wellington's  achievements. 

*  Josephs  pony ;  my  brothers  estate ;  the  girls  lessons ;  "Watts  works. 

Contractions.— Th' or  t'  for  the;  'm  for  am;  'rt,  art;  're,  are;  they're, 
they  are;  %  is,  us,  has;  let's,  let  us ;  'd,  had  or  would;  '11,  will;  he'll,  he  will; 
*  1 11,  /  will ;  *  I  d,  I  would ;  n't,  not ;  don't,  do  not ;  *  wont,  will  not ;  *  can£ 
can  not ;  'tis  or  it's,  it  is ;  e'en,  ev'n,  even;  e'er,  ever ;  *  ne  er,  never ;  o'er,  over; 
'gan,  began  ;  *  gainst,  against ;  *  neath,  beneath  ;  o'clock,  of  the  clock. 

*  The  rank  is  but  the  guineas  stamp,  the  mans  the  gold  for  a  that. 

Plurals. — "Cross  your  fs  and  dot  your  Ps,"  is  not  the  same  as  "  Cross  your. 
ts  and  dot  your  w." 

*  There  .are  no  is  in  English  "eyes;"  but  es  there  are  in  "ease." 
A  does  want  ye  to  make  it  "aye-,"  theres  but  onej?  in  "peas.1' 


The  double  dash  ( ),  or  stars  (  *  *  *  ),  or  periods  (..«..),  are  often 

used  to  show  the  intentional  omission  of  something. 

The  caret  (  A  ),  used  only  in  writing,  shows  where  to  insert  letters  or  words 
that  have  been  accidentally  omitted. 

The  macron  (  ~  )  marks  a  long  sound,  as  in  live. 

The  breve  (  u  )  marks  a  short  sound,  as  in  live. 

The  acute  accent  (  '  )  shows  stress  of  voiee,  as  in  op-po' -nent. 

The  di-er'-e-sis  (")  shows  that  tho  vowel  under  it,  is  not  connected  with  the 
trowel  before  it ;  as  in  preeminent. 

The  brace  (  \  )  unites  parts,  or  refers  them  In  common  to  something  else. 

The  section  (  §  )  and  the  paragraph  (  T  )  mark  tho  divisions  of  a  book,  or 
fhow  where  something  new  begins. 

The  hand  (  J^p  )  directs  special  attention  to  something. 

The  star  (  •  ),  the  dagger  (\),  tho  double  dagger  (  %  \  and  the  parallels  (  f  % 
refer  to  notes  in  the  margin.  Letters  or  figures  are  often  used  for  the  .same 
purpose. 

4 

^W  The  CorrvprefieTisive  Grammar  contains  a  groat  variety  of  examples  t©  illustrate 
the  rules  of  Punctuation  and  of  Capital  Letters.  It  will  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  select 
the  most  instructive  illustrations  given  in  that  book,  and  use  theuias  a  soil  of  "  Diclatioju 
Exercises.''' 


152  MATTERS    OF    REFERENCE; 

MATTERS   OF   REFERENCE. 
"Words  belonging  to  Two  or  More  Parts  of  Speech. 

AH  is  used — 

As  an  adjective.     "  All  flowers  must  fade." 

As  a  noun.     "  Not  all  that  glitters,  is  gold." 

As  an  adverb.     "  All  [altogether]  listless  roamed  a  shepherd  swain." 
As  is  used —  ["  As  cold  as  ice" — degree. 

As  an  adverb.     "  Skate  as  I  skate"— manner.     "  It  fell  as  I  entered" — time. 

As  a  conjunction.     u  As  [since]  we  all  must  die,  why  not  be  charitable  ?" 

As  a  pronoun.     "  Let  such  as  hear,  take  heed." 
Before  is  used — 

As  an  adverb.     "  I  came  before  it  rained." 

As  a,  preposition.     "  lie  stood  before  me." 
So  are  also  used  above,  after,  below,  ere,  etc. 
Both  is  used 

As  an  adjective.     "  Both  trees  are  in  blossom." 

As  a  corresponding  conjunction.     "  She  is  both  handsome  and  intelligent" 
So  are  also  used  eitJier,  neither,  etc. 
But  is  used — 

As  a  conjunction.     "  Sin  may  gratify,  but  repentance  stings." 

As  a  preposition.     "  Whence  all  but  [except]  him  had  fled." 

As  an  adverb.     "  Words  are  but  [only]  leaves. 
For  is  used— 

As  a  preposition.     "  lie  works  for  me." 

As  a  conjunction.     "  Improve  each  day,  for  [because]  life  is  short." 
So  is  also  used  notwithstanding. 
Much  is  used — 

As  an  adjective.     "  Much  money  is  often  an  evil." 

As  an  adverb.     "  He  is  much  better  than  he  was." 

As  a  noun.     "  Where  much  is  given,  much  will  be  required. 
So  are  also  used  more,  little,  less,  etc. 
Since  is  used — 

As  &  preposition.     "  Since  last  year." 

As  an  adverb.     "It  happened  long  since.,r 

As  a  conjunction.     "  Since  no  one  claims  it,  I  will  keep  it."     (Canso.) 
That  is  used — 

As  an  adjective.     "  TJiat  book  belongs  to  me."  [years." 

As  a  conjunction.     "Few  people  know  that  some  crows  live  a   hundred 

As  a  relative  pronoun.     "  The  same  flag  that  [which]  we  saw  before." 

As  a  demonstrative  pronoun.     "  The  court  of  England  or  thai  [the  court]  of 
What  is  used—  [France." 

As  an  interrogative  pronoun.     "  What  ails  you  ?" 

As  a  relative  pronoun  with  one  case.     "  I  know  what  ails  you." 

As  a  relative  pronoun  with  two  cases.     "  Take  what  I  offer." 

As  an  adjective.     "  What  news  from  Genoa  ?" 

As  an  interjection.     "WJiat!  take  my  moneyr  and  my  life  too?" 


MATTERS    OF    REFERENCE.  153 

Rules   for   Spoiling. 

Spelling  is  the  art  of  expressing  words  by  their  right  letters, 
properly  arranged.  This  art  must  be  learned  chiefly  from  spelling- 
books,  dictionaries,  and  observation  in  reading. 

Rule  I.— Doubling. 

"Words  of  one  syllable,  ending  in  a  single  consonant  preceded  by 
a  single  vowel;  and  words  of  more  syllables,  ending  in  the  same  way, 
with  the  accent  fixed  on  the  last  syllable, — double  the  consonant 
before  a  vowel  in  the  derivative  word. 

Ex. — Sad,  sadder,  saddest ;  rebel',  rebelled,  rebellion  ;  rob,  robber  ;  win,  zcinnin<, , 
fop,  foppish  ;  drum,  drummer  ;  up,  upper  ;  admit,  admittance  ;  quiz,  quizzed. 

In  other  cases,  no  doubling  takes  place. 

Ex. — Seal,  sealed;  gild,  gilded ;  hard,  harder  ;  infer',  (infcr'raZ,)  infer  enee  ;  bigot, 
bigoted  ;  tax,  taxed.    X  final=two  consonants,  ks  or  gz  ;  therefore  never  doubled. 

There  is  a  difference  between  robed  and  robbed,  planing  and  planning,  hater  and  hatter. 

Good  writers  sometimes  double  I,  contrary  to  the  Rule  above. 

Ex. — "Traveller" — Prescott,  Bryant  ;  "marvellous,"  "carolled" — Irving. 

Rule  II— Final  Y. 

Y  final,  preceded  by  a  consonant  and  followed  by  any  letter  except 
t,  is  changed  into  i  in  the  derivative  word. 

Ex. — Fly,  flies ;  glory,  glories,  glorify,  glorified,  glorifying,  glorification ;  try, 
trial;  pretty,  prettier,  prettiest  ;  merry,  merrily,  merriment;  pity, pitiable ;  \xy,  ivied. 
Ex ceptions:  The  derivatives  of  sly,  dry,  and  shy  ;  as  slyly,  dryly,  shyness. 

'  Y  final,  preceded  by  a  vowel,  or  followed  by  i,  remains  unchanged 
in  the  derivative  word. 

Ex. — Chimney,  chimneys  ;  gay,  gayer,  gayest,  gayety  ;  cry,  cried,  crying,  crier  ; 
buoy,  buoyant;  destroy,  destroyer  ;  annoy,  annoyance ;  joy,  joyful. 

Ex  c  ep  tions:  Pay,  paid ;  said,  laid,  daily  ;  staid  (remained),  stayed  (checked.) 

Rule  III— Final  E. 

E  final,  when  silent,  is  rejected  before  a  vowel  in  the  derivative 
word.  But  it  is  retained  when  needed  to  keep  c  or  g  soft,  or  to 
preserve  the  identity  of  the  word. 

Ex. — Bite,  biting  ;  force,  forced,  forcible  ;  sale,  salable  ;  rogue,  roguish. 
Agree,  agreeable;  peace, peaceable ;  tinge,  tingeing ;  glue,))rluey. 
There  is  a  difference  between  dying  and  dyeing,  singing  and  singeing. 

"Word3  ending  with  ie  change  i  into  y,  before  i,  to  prevent  the  doubling  of 
i;  as,  Die,  dying;  vie,  vying;  tie,  tying ;  lie,  lying. 

E  final  is  retained  before  a  consonant  in  the  derivative  word. 
Sometimes  it  is  rejected,  when  not  needed. 

Ex. — Base,  baseless  ;  rue,  rueful ;  definite,  definitely  ;  eye,  eyelet ;  whole,  whole- 
some,  (but  ivholly.)     Due,  duly  ;  true,  truly  ;  awe,  awful ;  judge,  judgment. 

Monosyllables  that  end  with  /  I,  or  s,  preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  generally 
have  this  consonant  double,  as  cliff,  mill,  pass;  words  that  end  with  any  other 
consonant  in  the  same  way,  generally  have  it  single,  as  man,  cat.  map.  The  final 
consonant  of  a  primitive  word  may  generally  remain  double,  but  not  be  trebled, 
in  the  derivative  word,  as  in  blissful,  skillful,  Jul  ly.     One  I  is  often  dropped  from 


154  MATTERS    OF    REFERENCE. 

U,  especially  when  the  accent  is  on  some  other  syllable ;  as  in  shalt,  always,  wel- 
come ;  fulfill',  use'ful.  Derived  verbs  generally  prefer  the  ending  ize  to  ise,  as 
legal,  legalize.  El  alter  c,  as  in  ceiling,  deceive ;  generally  ie  after  any  other  let- 
ter, as  in  siege,  lien,  sieve.  Seize,  inveigle,  and  some  other  words,  are  exceptions. 
Compound  words  generally  retain  the  spelling  of  the  words  from  which  they 
are  formed;  as,  Housewife,  juryman,  illness,  wherein.  Where,  wherever;  whoso, 
whosever;  sheep,  shepherd;  feet,  fetlock;  pass,  pastime;  well,  welfare;  holy, 
holiday, — are  some  of  the  exceptions. 

Formation   of  Words.* 

Frequently,  words  are  formed  from  other  words. 

Words  formed  from  others,  are  either  derivative  or  compound  ; 
and  hence  all  words  may  be  divided  into  primitive  (or  radical), 
derivative,  and  compound. 

The  elements  of  words,  in  regard  to  meaning,  are  roots,  pre- 
fixes, and  suffixes. 

A  root  is  the  chief  simplest  part  of  a  word,  or  that  part  which 
receives  the  prefix  or  suffix. 

A  prefix  is  a  letter  or  letters  joined  to  the  beginning  of  a 
word,  to  modify  its  meaning. 

A  suffix  is  a  letter  or  letters  joined  to  the  end  of  a  word,  to 
modify  its  meaning. 

Derivative  words  are  formed  from  primitives,  by  means  of 
prefixes  or  suffixes ;  and  compound  words  are  formed  by  uniting 
primitives  or  derivatives. 

Ex. — Plant,  re-plant,  transplant,  im-plant.  Act,  act-or,  bct-ive,  act-ivity ; 
great,  great-e#£ ;  form,  re-form-ation.     Blacksmith,  blameworthy,  spelling-book. 

Hoots  are  either  native  or  foreign,  and  sometimes  much  dis- 
guised. 

Frequently,  the  same  root  may  be  combined  with  several  dif- 
ferent prefixes  or  suffixes,  or  have  more  than  one  at  the  same 
time,  or  be  combined  with  some  other  root. 

Ex. — Struct  (build),  instruct,  construct,  re-construct;  thermos  (heat),  metron 
(measure),  thermometer. 

Prefixes  usually  modify  the  sense,  without  changing  the  part 
of  speech. 

Suffixes  usually  modify  the  part  of  speech,  without  materially 
affecting  the  sense  in  other  respects. 

Ex. — De  (from,  separation),  destroy,  de-stroy-er,  de-struct-ive,  de-stmct-we-ly, 
de-stmct-ive-ness,  de-stmct-ion,  in-de-str\xct-ible,  in-de-struct-ibil-ity. 

There  are  different  prefixes  capable  of  expressing  the  same 
sense,  and  there  are  also  different  suffixes  capable  of  expressing 

*  This  section  is  one  of  the  richest  in  the  hook  ;  at  least,  great  care  has  been  taken  to 
make  it  such.  It  will  require  some  skill  to  teach  it  as  it  shjauld  he  taught ;  but  if  it  is  rightly 
taught,  it  will  he  found  very  entertaining  and  instructive  to  pupils,  and.  will  enable  them  to 
dispense  with  the  special  book  which  is  usually  devoted  to  this  subject. 


MATTERS    OF    REFERENCE.  155 

the  same  sense;   because  the  choice  is  to  be  determined  not 

merely  by  the  meaning  of  what  is  added,  but  also  by  euphony, 

analogy,  and  the  character  of  the  root. 

Ex. — Generous,  un-geuerons ;  accurate,  i»-accurate  ;  throne,  de-throne,  un- 
throne ;  confess,  confess-ww ;  acknowledge,  acknowledg-7tt<^. 

The  meaning  of  a  prefix  is  sometimes  very  obvious,  sometimes 
obscure,  and  sometimes  it  has  faded  altogether. 

Ex. — Trans- plant,  iw-correct;  trans-act,  understand ;  com-plete,  be-take. 

Sometimes  a  prefix  or  a  suffix  is  added  to  a  word,  simply  to  lengthen  or  to 
strengthen  it  a  little  ;  as  be-loced  for  loved,  and  dear-y  for  dear.  Such  a  prefix  may 
be  disposed  of,  by  saying  that  it  is  simply  prosthetic  ;  and  such  a  suffix,  by  saying 
that  it  is  simply  paragog'ic. 

In  making  a  combined  form,  some  of  the  parts  frequently 
undergo  a  change  for  the  sake  of  euphony  or  analogy.  This  con- 
sists in  the  change,  omission,  or  insertion  of  some  letter  or  let- 
ters. The  initial  consonant  of  the  root  often  requires  the  final 
letter  of  the  prefix  to  be  like  it. 

Ex. — Con-lect,  col-lect ;  dis-fer,  dif-fer;  in-moderate,  im-moderate  ;  con-operate, 
co-operate  ;  dis-vulge,  dv-vulge  ;  a-archy,  an-archy ;  mucilage-ous,  muchlag-inous. 

Prefixes. 

The  prefixes  in  Roman  letters  are  Latin ;  in  Italic,  Greek  ;  in  black,  Saxon  or  native. 

A. ;  on,  in,  at,  to.     In  a  few  words  it  is  merely  intensive. 
Form,  spell,  and  define : — 

Bed,  ground,  shore,  cross,  sleep,  pace,  slant,  field,  side :  wake,  rise. 

Thus:  Abed;  a — b-e-d — abed;  on  or  in  bed. — See  dictionary,  when  you  can  not  deter, 
mine  the  meaning  otherwise. 

A,  ab,  abs;  from,  separation. 

Vert  (turn) ;  solve  (loosen),  nipt  (broken)  ;  tract  (draw),  tain  (hold). 

AD,  A,  AC,  AF,  AG,  AL,  AN,  AP,   AR,  AS,  AT  ;    to,  at. 

Join,  judge;  mount,  scend  (climb);    cord,   cuse  (cause,   charge);    fix, 

fusion  (pouring) ;  gress  (step),  gravate  (heavy)  ;  lot,  luvial  (washing) ; 

nex  (join),  nihilate  (nothing);  portion,  preciate  (price);  rogate  (lay 

claim)  ;  sure,  sail  (leap)  ;  sist  (stand) ;  tract,  tribute  (give). 

A,  AN;  without,  privation.  [ernment). 

Theist  (G-od),  pathy  (feeling),  torn  (cut) ;  onymous  (name),  archy  (gov- 
AMPHI ;  two,  double.  Theatre,  bious  (living). 

ANA  ;  up,  throughout,  parallel,  back,  again.  [tist. 

Tomy  (cutting),  lysis  (separation),  logy  (discourse),  gram  (letter),   bap- 
Ante  ;  fore,  before.     Chamber,  date,  meridian  (noon),  cedent  (going). 
ANTI,  ANT ;  against,  opposition. 

Bilious,  febrile,  pathy  (feeling),  dote  (given) ;  arctic,  agonist  (contend). 
APO,  AP;  from,  off.  [(sun). 

Gee  (earth),  strophe  (turning),  logy,  stle  (from  stello,  send) ;  helion 
Be ;  action  directed  to  an  object ;  intensity  ;  by,  near,  about. 

Daub,  dew,  moan,  lie,  set,  siege,  cloud,  spatter ;  side,  fore,  cause. 
Bene  ;  good,  well.     Pit  (deed),  volent  (wishing),  factor  (doer),  diction  (say- 
Bis,  Br ;   twice,  two.  UnS)' 

Cuit  (baked) ;  angular,  valve,  gamy  (marriage),  sect  (cut),  ped  (foot). 


156  MATTERS    OF    REFERENCE. 

CA  TA,  CA  T;  down,  against,  throughout.     (The  opposite  of  ana.) 

Ract  (flowing),  strophe,  pult  (throw) ;  hedral  (seat),  holic  (whole). 
Ciroum,  emeu;  round,  about. 

Navigate,  jacent   (lying),    spect   (looking),    stance    (standing),    scribe, 
(mark,  write),  ference  (bearing) ;  late  (borne),  itous  (going). 
Cis;  on  this  side.  Alpine,  Atlantic. 

Con,  co,  cog,- col,  com,  cor;  with,  together,  jointly. 

Join,  tract,  fuse  (pour),  vene  (come),   ceive   (take),   tain,  flict  (strike), 
flagration  (burning) ;  extent,  heir,  operate  ;  nate  (born) ;  league,  lect 
(gather),  loquy  (speaking) ;  press,  mingle,  pose,  (place) ;  respond,  rel- 
ative. 
Contra,  contro,  counter;  against,  in  opposition,  answering  to. 

Diet  (say),  distinguish;  vert;  part,  pressure,  feit  (make),  act,  plot. 
De  ;  from,  down,  destruction. 

Tract,  press,  ject  (throw),  throne,  scend,  pend  (hang),  tect  (cover),  tach 
(tie),  sist,  cline  (lean),  spise  (look),  moralize. 
DIA,  DI ;  through,  across.       Meter,  lect  or  logue  (speech),  gonal  (angle). 
Dis,  di,  dif;  away,  apart,  undoing,  negation. 

Join,  organize,  appear,  miss  (send),  ease,  sect,  tract,  cover,  perse  (scat- 
ter), please,  inter,  arm,  order,  similar;  verge  (incline),  stance,  gress; 
fer  (bear),  fuse. 
E,  ex,  ec,  ef  ;  out,  out  of,  from. 

Ject  (throw),  lect  (pick),  vade  (go),  mit  (send);  pectorant  (breast),  press, 
pand  (spread),  port  (carry),  pose,  ceed  (go),  elude  (shut),  tort  (twist), 
pire  (breathe) ;  centric  (centre),  stasy  (standing) ;  fuse,  feet  (done),  ful- 
gence  (shining). 
JEN  (Greek  or  French),  EM;  in,  into,  upon. 

Tangle,  shrine,  rage,  gulf,  large,  grave  (scrape),  tomb;  broider,  blazon, 
bark,  bitter,  brace  (arm). 
EPI,  EP ;  upon,  over,  after. 

Taph  (tomb),  demic  (people),  thet  (placed),  logue ;  hemeral  (day),  ode. 
Extra  ;  beyond.  Ordinary,  vagant  (going),  mural  (wall). 

For,  fore ;  from,  against,   the  contrary.     Bid,  get,   sake  (seek),  give, 

swear;  go. 
Fo  re,  for ;   before. 

Tell,  run,  see,  know,  taste,  man,  father,  noon,  arm,  mast,  head;  ward. 
HYPER ;  beyond,  over,  excess.  Borean  (north),  critical,  meter  (measure). 
HYPO ;  under.  Thesis  placing),  sulphuric,  crite  (thoughts). 

In,  ig,  im,  il,  ir  ;  not,  privation,  the  contrary. 

Human,  discreet,  elastic,  consistent;  noble;  modest,   mortal,    patient j 
legal,  liberal ;  reverent,  regular,  resolute. 
In,  im,  il,  ir  ;  in,  into,  upon,  over. 

Flame,  struct,  lay,  here  (stick),  cline,  vade,  sist,  fleet  (bend),  cision  (cut- 
ting), scribe,   wrought;  plant,  pearl,  print,   press,   port,  pend,  pose; 
luminate  or  lustrate  (throw  light) ;  radiate  (throw  rays). 
Inter  ;  between.  Weave,  line,  cede,  regnum  (reign),  mix,  marriage. 

Intro  ;  inwards,  within.  Duce  (lead),  mission  (sending). 

META,  METH;  over,  beyond,  with,  change. 

Thesis,  morphose  (form),  physics,  phor  (convey) ;  od  (way). 
]TIi§;  wrong,  ill.  Apply,  cs^h  deed,  place,  use,  spell,  take,  fortune. 

Non;  negation.  Conductor,  conformity,  sense,  resident,  payment. 


MATTERS    OF    REFERENCE.  157 

Ob,  oo,  of,  op  ;  in  the  way,  to,  against 

Trade  (thrust),  ject  (throw),  stacle  (standing) ;  cur,  casion  (falling) ;  fei; 
pose,  press. 
Out ;  beyond,  not  within. 

Bid,  grow,  last,  live,  let,  side,  law,  cast. 
Over  ;  above,  beyond,  excess. 

Balance,  hang,  top,  leap,  spread,  do,  flow,  look,  load,  shoot,  value,  wise. 
PARA,  PAR;  beside,  against,  from. 

Dox  (opinion),  graph  (writing),  phrase,  site  (food) ;  helion,  ody  (song). 
Per,  pel;  through,  by. 

Use,  form,  ennial  (year),  ceive,  sist  (stand),  feet,  forate  (bore),   chance, 
cent  (hundred) ;  lucid  (shining). 
PERI;  around,  about,  near. 

Patetic  (walking),  helion,  od,  phery  (bearing),  cranium,  style  (pillar). 
Post;  after.      Script  (writing),   humous  (ground),  pone  (place),  mortem 
Pre  ;  before.  [(death),  meridian. 

Judge,  mature,  engage,  dispose,  sentiment,  fer,  sume  (take), vent  (come), 
scribe,  side  (sit),  text  (weaving),  cision. 
Preter  ;  past,  beyond.  Natural,  imperfect,  mission. 

Pro,  prof;  for,  forth,  forwards,  before. 

Noun,  ceed  (go),  gress,  tect,  pel  (drive),  spect  (look),  duce  (lead,  bring), 
ject,  fusion,  logue ;  fer. 
Re  ;  again,  back. 

Build,  call,  enter,  new,  view,  pel,  lapse  (fall),  sonant  (sounding),  strain 
(draw),  bound,  place,  sist,  cline,  tain. 
Retro  ;  backwards.  Cede,  vert,  spect,  grade  (walk). 

Se  ;  aside,  apart.         Cede,  elude  (shut),  cant  (cutting),  duce  (lead),  lect. 
SEMr,  demi,  hemi  ;  half. 

Annual,  circle,  colon,  diameter,  vowel ;  god,  cannon ;  sphere. 
Sine  ;  without.  Cure  (care). 

Sub,  sue,  suf,  sug,  sup,  sur,  sus, — subter  ;  under,  after,  inferior. 

Soil,  divide,  scribe,  ject,  marine;  cor  (run),  cumb  (lie  down),  ceed;  fer, 
fuse,  fix;  gest  (bring);  plant,  press;  rogate  (ask);  tain;  fuge  (fly). 
Super,  supra,  sur  ;  above,  over  and  above. 

Structure,  fine,  cargo,  fluous,  natural ;  mundane ;  pass,  charge,  mount. 
STN,  STL,  SYM,  SY  ;  xvith,  together. 

Thesis,  tax  (placing),  opsis  (view),  agogue  (lead);  lable  (taking),  logism 
(counting) ;  phony  (sound),  pathy ;  stem  (to  make  stand,  set). 
Trans,  tran,  tra  ;  through,  across,  over,  on  the  other  side  of. 

Act,  plant,  gress,  Atlantic,  pose,  port,  fer  or  late  (carry),  migrate,  form, 
it  (going) ;  scribe  (write),  scend ;   dition  (giving). 
Tri  ;  three.  Colored,  angular,  meter,  foliate  (leaf),  ennial. 

Uh  $  not,  negation,  privation,  undoing. 

Able,  happy,  wise,  truth,  aided,  bar,  chain,  ship,  do,  twist,  horse. 
Under  5  beneath,  inferior. 

Agent,  brush,  current,  ground,  rate,  sell,  hand,  go,  mine,  sign. 
TJni  ;  one.     Corn  (horn),  form,  florous  (flowering),  valve  (shell). 
Up ;  motion  upwards,  above,  subversion. 

Turn,  raise,  rise,  hold,  land,  hill,  right,  start,  set,  root. 
"With  ;  against,  from,  back.  Hold,  draw,  stand, 


158  MATTERS    OF    REFERENCE. 

Suffixes,    or    Affixes. 

The  derivatives  of  this  class  consist  almost  entirely  of  nouns^ 
adjectives,  verbs,  and  adverbs. 

The  same  suffix  is  not  usually  confined  to  one  meaning,  but  ranges  with  the 
principles  given  under  the  head  of  Figures.     (See  p.  138.)     The  following  are 
the  chief  suffixes,  with  their  ordinary  meanings: — 
Able  ;  can  be.     Conquer-a&Ze  •  can  be  conquered. 

can  or  should  be.     Vitl-able  /  can  or  should  be  pitied. 

having,  giving.     Comfort-a&fc  •  having  or  giving  comfort. 
Ac  ;  belonging  to,  like.     Elegi-ac  ■  belonging  to  or  like  elegy. 
Aceous  ;  having  the  qualities  of,  consisting  of,  resembling.      "■  Revb-aceous  plants." 

"  Cmst-aceous  animals  j"  like  crabs  or  lobsters. 

Ad e ;  thing.     Lemon-aae  ;  drink  made  of  lemons.  [ade. 

group  of  things  or  acts.    Arc-ade,  continuation  of  arches.     Cannon- 
Age  ;  state.    Bond-a</e  ;  state  of  being  in  bonds,  slavery. 

act  or  thing.     Carri-aye  ;  act  of  carrying,  or  that  which  carries. 
allowance.     Mile-a#e  /  what  is  paid  per  mile. 
collection.     Cord-a^e  ;  collection  of  cords,  a  ship's  tackle. 
AI  ;  having,  consisting,  of.     Cr'im-'m-al;   having  crime.     Ornament-a7. 

belonging  to,  suitable  to.  Parent-aZ/  belonging  or  suitable  to  a  parent. 
act.     Remo v-al;  act  of  removing. 
An  ;  belonging  to,  resembling.     Hercu'le-an/  large  or  strong  as  Hercules. 

person.     African/  a  person  from  Africa.     Guard-i-an. 
Alice,  ancy;  act  or  thing.   Resist-ance;  act  of  resisting,  thing  resisting. 

state.     Constancy  /  state  of  being  constant.     See  Cy. 
A  lit;  doing.     Pleas-antf/  applied  to  something  that  pleases. 

person.     Serv-ant;  one  that  serves. 
Ar  ;  belonging  to.     Po-lar  ;  belonging  to  the  poles. 

like,  consisting  of.     Glob-u-la/-/  like  a  globe.     Titular. 
person.     Beg-gar/  one  that  begs. 
Arcl ;  person.     Dmnk-ard;  one  that  is  habitually  drunk. 

resembling.     Hag-gard/  resembling  a  hag  in  appearance,  withered. 
Ary;  belonging   to,  consisting   of.     Custom- ary ;    belonging   to  custom. 
person.     Ad'vers-an/  /  one  that  is  adverse  or  hostile. 
thing  or  place.     InQ.no! -ary  ;  a  house  or  place  for  the  infirm. 
Ate  ;  to  make,  to  do.     Perpetu-afe  /  to  make  perpetual.     Officiate. 
belonging  to.     Collegi-afe  /  belonging  to  a  college. 
office,  government.     Caliph-afe  /  office  or  dominion  of  a  caliph. 
Atic,   etic.     See  Ic.     Emblem-afoc.     Sympathetic. 
Cy  ;  act.     Pira-cy/  act  or  crime  of  pirating. 

state.     Secre-cy/  the  state  of  being  secret. 
office,  district.     Cura-cy  /  the  office  or  district  of  a  curate. 
Do  111  •  state  or  thing.     Free-dora/  state  of  being  free.     Wis-dom. 

country  or  district,  government.  King-dom  /  country  ruled  by  a  king. 
Ee  ;  person,  person  to  whom.     Absent-ee/  one  that  is  absent.     Trustee. 
Ed ;  did  or  received.     Past  tense  or  perfect  participle.     See  p.  47. 

furnished  with,  having.     Hilt-ed/  furnished  with  a  hilt.     Beard-ed. 
En;  to  make.     Black-en/  to  make  black. 

made  of,   resembling.     Gold-en/  made   of  gold,    resembling    gold, 

precious  as  gold.  [Dependent 

En cc,  ency,    cut.     See  Ance,  Ancy,  Ant.     Reverence.     Solvency. 


MATTERS    OF    REFERENCE.  159 

Er,  eer,  ier,  or;  person.  Driver;  one  that  drives.  Engineer.  Financier. 
thing.     Revolv-er  ;   something  that  revolves,  a  pistol. 
Er,  more;  Est,  most.  Comparison  of  adjectives  or  adverbs.  See  pp.  25, 60. 
Esoeait;  growing,   becoming.     'Putrescent;  becoming  putrid. 
Ess;  female.     Host-ess;  a  female. host. 

Ferous;  bearing,  producing.     Comf-erous  ;  producing  cones,  like  the  pine. 
Fill;  full  of  having  of     Car  e-f id;  full  of  care,  cautious. 
Fy;  <o  make.     Buri-fy  ;  to  make  pure. 
Hood  ;  state  or  thing.    »~Fahe-hood  ;  state  of  being  false,  what  is  false^ 

state  or  qualities.     Man  -hood  ;  state  of  being  a  man,  noble  qual- 

group.     Qhter-hood;  a  group  of  sisters.  [ities. 

Ible.     See  Able.     Govrnpt-ible.      Contempt-i&Ze.     Sens-i5?e. 

le,  ical  ;  consisting   of    resembling.      Metal'-lic;   consisting  of  metal. 

Spher-tca?.  [a  hero. 

belonging  to,  suitable  to.    Hero-ic;  belonging  to  or  becoming 

having,  inclined  to.     Dropsical;  having  dropsy.      Whimsical 

Jlce  ;  act,  state,  or  thing.     Serv-ice  ;  act  of  serving,  state  of  serving,  thing 

Ics  ;  science  or  art.     Mechanics ;  the  science  of  machinery.  [done. 

things  collectively.    Statist-ies  ;  facts  showing  the  condition  of  a  nation. 

He;   belonging  to,  resembling.     Serv-iZe;  belonging  to  or  like  a  servant, 

I  lie;  belonging  to.     Alpine;  belonging  to  the  Alps.  [mean. 

consisting  of,   resembling.     Alkalme;  consisting  of  or  like   alkali. 

Illgf ;  doing.     Ending  of  the  present  participle.     See  p.  57. 

act  or  thing.     Shav-ing  ;  act  of  shaving,  what  is  shaved  off. 
group,  material  in  mass.     Bed-ding  ;  materials  of  a  bed. 
occupation,  science,  or  art.     Hunt-ing.     ~Eng'meer-ing.     Farm-ing. 
Io:i;  act  or  result.     Union;  act  of  uniting,  things  united. 

act  or  state.     Communion;  act  or  state  of  communing. 
The  endings  lion  and  sion,  which  occur  so  often,  belong  to  this  head. 
Ish  ;  somewhat.     Green-ish  ;  somewhat  green. 
like.     Boy-ish;  like  a  boy. 

inclined  to.     Thiev-ish;  inclined  to  thieve  or  steal.     Snappish, 
to  make,  to  do.   Publish;  to  make  public.  Vanish  (vain),  pass  away. 
Ism  ;  act  or  mode.     Baptism  ;  act  or  mode  of  baptizing. 

doctrine  or  peculiarity.     Jesuit-ism.     American- ism. 
Idiom.     Latin-ism  ;  a  Latin  mode  of  speech. 
1st  ;  person  or  doer.     Art-ist;  one  that  practises  art. 
Ite  ;  person,  usually  of  a  race,  clan,  or  party.     Israel-ife. 
Ive  ;  doing.     Abusive ;  abusing. 

person  or  other  object.     Relative  ;  one  related.     Captive. 
Ize,  ise  ;  to  act  the  part  of.     Tyrannize;  to  act  the  tyrant. 

to  make,  to  give.    Legal-ize ;  to  make  legal.     Author-ize. 
Less  ;  without,  wanting.     Cave-less;  without  care,  heedless. 
Eiug;  an  object.     Year-ling;  something  a  year  old.     World-ling. 

a  small  one.     Gos-ling  ;  a  small  or  young  goose.     So,  -kin,  -ock, 

-CLE,  -EL,  -ULE,  -ET. 

JLy  ;  like.     Mother-??/  ;  like  a  mother,  kind. 

Meat ;  act  or  result.     Abrid^-ment ;  act  of  abridging,  thing  abridged. 

state.     Content-mew^;  state  of  being  contented. 

something  that  does.     Amuse-ment;  something  that  amuses. 
2f  ess  ;  state  or  quality.     Happi-wess;  state  of  being  happy.     Hard-wess. 


160  MATTERS    OF    REFERENCE. 

Ory;  doing.     Declaratory;  declaring. 

place.     Depository ;  place  of  deposit.  [joke. 

Ose  ;  consisting  of,  inclined  to.     Jocose;  consisting  of  jokes,  inclined  to 
Oils;  consisting  of.   having.     Fibrous;    consisting  of  fiber.      Ambitions. 

doing,  inclined  to.  Studi-ous;  studying,  inclined  to  study.  Malicious. 
Ric  (akin  to  rich,  right,  realm)  ;  district,  government,  dominion.    Bishop-ric. 
Ship  ;  state  or  thing.     Hard-ship  ;  hard  condition,  what  causes  it. 

act  or  thing.     Worship.     Court-ship. 

office,  dignity.     Clerk-ship ,  office  of  a  clerk,     liordship. 
Some;  tending  to,  somewhat.  Wearisome  ;  tending  to  weary.  Glad-some 

inclined  to.     Quarrel-some;  inclined  to  quarrel. 
Ster ;  person  or  other  object.     Songster;  one  that  sings.     See  Er. 
Ude;  state  or  thing.     Infinitude.     Multitude. 
Ure  ;  act  or  state.     Exposure;  act  of  exposing,  state  of  being  exposed. 

thing  or  result.     Enclosure.     Temperatwre. 

science,  art,  or  result.     Architect-wre. 
IT,  ry,  ty ;  having.     Stony  ;  having  stones.     Dirty.     Gloomy. 

consisting  of,  resembling.     Wiry  ;  consisting  of  or  resembling  wire. 

worthy  of     Trusty  ;  worthy  of  being  trusted. 

state  or  quality.  *Honesty  ;  state  or  quality  of  being  honest.  Safe-tfy. 

objects  collectively.    Soldiery ;  soldiers  collectively.    Kevel-ry.  Navy 
(navis,  ship). 

place.     Grocery  ;  place  in  which  groceries  are  kept  and  sold. 

art,  science,  or  result.     Mason-ry. 

Nouns. 

Person  or  Instrument :  Ard,  ary,  ee,  ess,  ine,  ist,  ite,  ive, 
ix,  n,  nt,  r. 

Thing,  Act,  or  State  :  Ade,  age,  al,  dorn,  hood,  ice,  ics, 
ion,  ism,  nient,  ness,  nee,  ry,  ship,  t,  th,  ude,  ure,  y. 

Most  derivative  nouns  are  formed  from  verbs,  adjectives,  and  nouns.  A 
derivative  noun  may  denote  either  a  person,  a  thing,  an  act,  or  a  state. 

The  person  denoted  by  a  derivative  noun,  when  it  denotes  a  person, 
must  be  the  doer  of  an  act,  the  receiver  of  an  act,  or  simply  one  in  some 
way  related  to  that  from  which  the  name  is  formed.     See  pp.  158-60. 

From  the  thing,  the  mind  naturally  passes  to  whatever  is  obviously  re- 
lated to  it. 

From  the  act,  the  mind  readily  passes  to  what  caused  it, — whether  a 
person  or  an  object,  or  some  facult}',  skill,  or  principles, — to  the  result,  or 
to  the  manner. 

From  the  state,  the  mind  readily  passes  to  what  caused  it,  to  what  fol- 
lows from  it,  to  what  sustains  it,  or  to  what  necessarily  accompanies  it. 

Hence  affixes  are  perplexingly  variable  in  their  meanings  ;  indeed,  so  much  so, 
that  the  pupil  will  often  find  it  safer  to  learn,  from  a  dictionary,  the  meaning  of  the 
entire  word,  than  to  determine  this  meaning  from  his  knowledge  of  the  affix. 

Form  and  spell,  making  the  requisite  euphonic  changes ;  and  define : — 

Ard. — Drunk,*  dote,  slug,  dull,  cow  (verb),  Spain,  Savoy. 

*  Throughout  the  following  exercises,  the  student  should  spell  and  define,  from  his  dic- 
tionary if  necessary,  each  word  given  ;  and  then  the  derivative  word  in  like  manner.     Thus: 


MATTERS    OF    REFERENCE.  161 

Ary. — Adverse,  statue,  note,  mission. 

lie.  (Generally  passive  ;  the  person  to  whom.) — Indorse,  pay,  patent, 
assign,  consign,  trust,  commit,  legate,  mortgage,  lease,  less;  absent,  refuge. 

ISss,  iaie,  ix  ;  female. — Lion,  heir;  hero,  Joseph;  administrator. 

1st. — Copy,  tour,  journal,  natural,  novel,  algebra,  drug,  duel,  art,  violin, 
pian-o;  drama,  -tist ;  enthusiasm,  -ast,  encomium. 

Itc. — Favor,  Israel,  Moab,  Jacob. 

Ive. — Capture,  operate. 

W. — America,  Africa,  Virginia,  Kentucky,  college,  music. 

I¥t. — Claim,  -ant,  account,  inhabit,  combat,  dispute,  confide,  protest, 
assist,  assail,  appeal;  study,  -ent,  preside;  oppose,  -ponent;  act,  -gent; 
receive,  -cipient. 

I&. — Oversee ;  He,  -ar,  beg,  school ;  farm,  -er,  hunt,  ride,  drive,  make, 
teach,  preach,  write,  speak,  wait,  plaster,  settle,  pipe,  widow,  hat,  foreign; 
visit,  -or,  edit,  profess,  survive,  speculate,  create,  govern,  conquer,  direct, 
conduct,  protect,;  conspire,  -ator ;  compete,  -itor ;  auction,  -eer,  mountain, 
engine,  gazette,  pamphlet,  chariot ;  cash,  -ier,  cannon,  finance,  cloth,  glaze ; 
save,  -ior ;  law,  -yer,  saw;  team,  -ster,  web;  poke,  -er  (thing),  revolve, 
shut,  boil,  read,  speak,  fend,  steam,  knock,  wrap. 

Diminutives.  (These  often  imply  endearment  or  contempt.) — > 
Man,  -ikin  ;  lamb,  -kin;  ring,  -let,  stream,  leaf,  plant,  cover;  lock,  -et,  mall; 
duck,  -ling,  lord,  hire,  suckle.  Globe,  globwZe;  grain,  granwfe;  ball,  bullet; 
cat,  kitten;  island,  isle;  isle,  islet. 

ifide. — Gascon,  stock,  lemon,  baluster;  stamp,  -ede. 

Age. — Use,  marry,  mile,  post,  equip,  till,  folium  (leaf),  herb,  bag, 
bond,  pupil,  parson,  hermit,  anchor. 

Al. — Peruse,  remove,  recite,  requite,  deny,  propose,  refuse,  dismiss. 

I>oen. — Free,  wise,  martyr,  thrall,  king,  duke,  earl. 

Hood. — Child,  brother,  man,  woman,  boy,  sister,  priest,  hardy,  lively. 

Ice. — Serve,  just,  lath,  lat-tice. 

Ics. — Poet,  harmony,  mechanic,  statist  (state),  phys  (nature). 

Ion* — Commune,  precise,  act,  reflect,  possess,  expand  ;  and  many 
other  words,  in  which  the  ending  shows  itself  in  the  form  of  Hon  or  sion. 

Is  in. — Fanatic,  despot,  critic,  hero,  baptize,  heathen. 

Ment. — Move,  pave,  content,  case,  punish,  acquire,  agree,  battle, 
settle,  complete,  refresh,  conceal,  excite,  refine,  retire,  manage,  abridge, 
amend,  nourish,  arm,  -ament. 

Nee,  ncy. — Acquaint,  -ance,  concord,  resist,  observ-e,  convey,  ele- 
gant; innocent,  -ence,  resident,  differ,  precede;  pliant,  -ancy,  constant; 
despond,  -ency,  ascend. 

Ness. — Good,  bad,  white,  bold,  sweet,  holy,  busy,  comprehensive. 

Ship. — Partner,  clerk,  scholar,  professor,  town,  workman,  horseman, 
apprentice,  hard,  friend,  lord,  court.     See  Hood. 

T,   lEi. — Constrain,  join,  restrain  ;  warm,  wide,  true,  long,  strong. 

Ude. — Disquiet,  serve,  solitary,  right,  rect-. 

lire. — Please,  depart,  moist,  seize,  legislate,  sign-a^re,  nourish,  nurt-. 

D-r-u-n-k-drunk,  intoxicated  with  liquor;  d-r-u-n-k-drunk-a-r-d-ard-drunkard,  one  that  is 
habitually  drunk,  a  not.  A-d-ad-v-e-r-s-e-verse-adverse,  opposing,  contrary;  a-d-ad-v-e-r- 
ver-adver-s-a-sa-adversa-r-y-ry-adversary,  one  that  op])oses,  an  enemy.  So  comprehensive 
is  the  collection  of  words  here  presented,  that  the  defining  of  the  words  in  the  manner  io- 
dicated,  will  amply  repay  the  labor  of  using  the  dictionary. 


102  MATTERS    OF    REFERENCE. 

Y. — Honest,  modest,  discover,  master,  armor,  glutton,  injure;  lunatic, 
-acy,  private,  secret,  -cy;  hypocrite,  -sy  ;  pedant,  -ry,  gallant,  revel,  bigot, 
bake,  scene;  brew,  -en/,  cook,  witch,  mock,  fish,  crock;  loyal,  -ty,  novel; 
null,  -ity,  dense,  fertile,  hostile,  captive,  divine,  pure,  infirm,  opportune, 
secure,  sincere,  elastic. 

Words  ending  in  y  or  ry,  are  often  collective  in  sense,  denoting  groups  of  ob- 
jects or  acts  ;  as,  Orange-ry,  shrub-fony,  soldier-y,  sorcer-y,  trigonometry.  So  is 
the  coding  ing  not  unfrequently  collective  in  sense  ;  as,  Bed,  bedding  ;  shop,  shop- 
ping  ;  bagging,  carpeting,  hedging,  gunning  (elements  of  science,  or  science  as  drawn 
from  a  multitude  of  acts  or  experiments). 

Adjectives. 

Al,  an,  ar,  ate,  ble,  en,  ern,  ful,  ic,  (ific,)  ile,  ine,  ish,  ive, 
less,  nt,  ous,  some,  ward,  y,  (ly,  ary,  ory). 

Most  derivative  adjectives  are  formed  from  nouns  and  verbs  •  and  these 
adjectives  generally  signify — 

Having  of  or  having  the  nature  of,  more  or  less ;  or  that  the  object 
described,  in  some  ways  belongs  or  is  related  to  that  from  whose  name 
the  adjective  is  formed. 

The  same  word  may  frequently  be  used  either  as  an  adjective  or  as  a  noun. 

Form  and  spell,  making  the  requisite  euphonic  changes ;  and  define: — 

A  I. — Nature,  nation,  origin,  music,  autumn,  tropic;  senator,  -ial7 
manor,  matter,  part,  commerce;  spirit,  -ual,  sense,  habit;  consequence, 
-tial,  influence,  essence;  benefit,  -cial ;  nose,  nas-,  pope, pop-,  feast, /est-. 

Ail. — Europe,  epicure,  Africa,  America,  Italy,  suburbs. 

Ar. — Column,  consul;  globe,  -ular,  circle,  muscle,  title,  particle. 

Ate. — Rose,  globe,  affection,  consider,  compassion. 

Ble.  (Passive,  if  from  a  transitive  verb.) — Detest,  -able,  cure,  eat, 
change,  honor,  tolerate,  utter,  value,  fashion;  corrupt,  -ible,  resist,  sense, 
destroy,  destruct-,  accede,  access-,  perceive,  percept-,  divide,  divis-. 

En.     (Of  what  substance  made.) — Beech,   wood,  wool,   earth,  brass, 

Ern. — North,  south,  east,  west  \braz-. 

Fail.  (Opposed  to  Less.) — Art,  mind,  thought,  peace,  hope,  brim, 
care,  fret,  waste,  cheer,  fear,  youth,  tune,  play,  sin,  shame,  wake,  law, 
mourn,  truth,  mercy,  duty. 

Ic. — Angel,  hero,  poet,  sphere,  lyre;  vertex,  -leal,  dropsy;  sympathy, 
-etic,  pathos,  theory ;  barometer,  -etric,  diameter;  emblem,  -atic,  problem, 
system,  drama;  color,  -ific,  dolor;  science,  -tific;  romance,  -tic;  pharisee, 
-saic;  traged}^  -gic;  Plato,  -nic. 

He. — Infant,  serve,  merchant,   mercant-,  puer  (boy).  [tracted). 

Ine. — Serpent,   adamant,   amaranth,  crystal,  -line,    leather,    -n   (con- 

Ish. — Salt,  black,  yellow,  sweet,  fop,  fool,  knave,  scare,  shit- ;  Spain. 

Ive.  (G-enerally  active.) — Create,  abuse,  attract,  invent,  prevent, 
progress,  retain,  retent-,  attend;  perceive,  -ceptive ;  presume,  -sumptive ; 
produce,  product-,  destroy;  disjoin,  disjunct-;  adhere,  -hesive,  corrode, 
intrude,  decide;  impel,  -pulsive,  repel. 

Ees§. — Art,  blame,  faith,  fear,  care,  help,  hope,  name,  fruit,  worth, 
ground,  guilt,  thought,  mercy. 

Nt.  (Generally  active.) — Tolerate,  -ant,  please,  buoy,  triumph,  attend, 
expect,  luxury;  solve,  -ent}  consist,  abhor;  compose,  -ponent. 


MATTERS    OF    REFERENCE.  163 

Oil§. — Bulb,  pore,  pomp,  fame,  clamor,  joy,  grieve,  ruin,  peril,  danger, 
murde.-,  mountain,  solicit,  covet;  bile,  -ious,  perfidy,  vary,  malice,  caprice, 
pity,  -eous,  beauty,  duty;  tempest,  -uous,  contempt,  tumult;  enormity, 
-mous  ;  merit,  -orious ;  mucilage,  -inous  ;  bulb,  -iferous. 

Some. — Toil,  tire,  dark,  glad,  quarrel,  lone,  weary.  See  Ish. 
-Y. — Grass,  rock,  sand,  flint,  hill,  shade,  swamp,  meal,  flower,  curl,  mud, 
cloud,  wealth,  grease,  flesh,  sponge,  sleep;  heart,  pearl,  oil,  mire,  wire ; 
fire,  fiery ;  clay,  -ey  ;  friend,  -ly,  beast,  brother,  father,  mother,  heaven, 
man,  time,  state,  home;  residue,  -ary,  imagine,  element;  subsidy,  -iary; 
contradict,  -ory,  conciliate,  declare,  satisfy,  explain. 

Upward,  outward,  armigeivus,  spheroid,  Arabesque,  statuesque,  grotesque. 

Verbs. 
Ate,  en,  fy,  ish,  ize,  ise. 

Most  derivative  verbs  are  formed  from  nouns  and  adjectives;  and  these 
verbs  generally  signify — 

To  make  or  become ;  to  impart  the  thing  or  quality  to,  or  to  exercise 
it ;  to  make  the  ordinary  use  of;  an  act  or  state  consisting  of  some  com- 
mon or  permanent  relation  between  the  subject  of  the  verb  and  the  thing. 

Form  and  spell,  making  the  requisite  euphonic  changes ;  and  define : — 

Ate. — Alien,  origin,  germ,  populous,  luxury,  fabric,  facility,  spoil,  sgoli-, 
grain,  granu-,  stimulous,  office,  vacant,  circular. 

En. — Black,  white,  sharp,  red,  soft,  moist,  less,  sweet,  bright,  strength, 
haste,  glad,  sad,  ripe,  quick,  thick,  fright. 

Fy. — Beauty,  pure,  just,  simple,  glory,  class,  sign,  clear,  clari-,  righi, 
recti-,  peace,  pad-,  special,  sped-,  example,  exempli-,  fruit,  fructi-  ;  prophet, 

Isll. — Brand,  bland,  public,  famine,  languid.  \resV- 

Ize,  i§e.  (These  generally  signify  to  make,  to  apply,  to  act  the  part 
of.) — Legal,  theory,  modern,  moral,  organ,  botany;  tyrant,  melody,  fa- 
miliar, character,  apology ;  critic. 

Sharp  ending  to  flat  or  rough. — Cloth,  breath,  wreath,  bath,  price, 
advice,  grass,  excuse,  abuse,  grief,  half,  thief. 

Accent  changed. — Abstract,  conflict,  absent,  frequent,  rebel. 

Word  unchanged.  (To  make  that  use  of  which  mankind  generally 
make ;  some  customary  or  habitual  act  or  state ;  some  active  relation  to.) 
— Hoe,  shoe,  shovel,  plane,  chisel,  hammer,  smoke,  garden,  farm,  weed, 
plant,  coop,  soap,  shear,  gem,  fire,  lance,  and  the  names  of  instrumental 
tilings  generally. 

Adverbs. 

Ly,  ward  or  wards,  wise  or  ways. 

Most  derivative  adverbs  are  formed  from  adjectives. 
Form,  spell,  and  define : — 

"Ly  ;  like,  manner,  quality. —Tetter,  strange,  bright,  plain,  faint,  fierce, 
swift,  playful,  studious,  mere,  scarce,  in,  one,  on-,  spiral,  fearless,  infallible. 

Ward,  wards  ;  direction. — Back,  in,  out,  up,  clown,  home,  heaven, 
east,  lee,  wind. 

Wise,  ways;  manner,  way.— Length,  cross,  other,  side,  edge; 
etraifjht. 


164  '  MATTERS    OF    REFERENCE. 

A  compound  word  generally  consists  of  a  principal  word  and  its  modifier, 
abridged  both  into  one  word.  (See  pp.  105,  150.)  The  first  part  of  a  compound 
word  is  usually  the  descriptive  part;  and  the  most  numerous  compounds  are  those 
in  which  a  noun  is  combined  with  a  noun. 

Additional  Words  Explained. 

PWN 

67-87.  (Correct)  Syntax.— Rule;  something  fit  to  be  obeyed,  something  of  great 
importance  because  often  true,  or  true  of  much:  index  are  great  truths  according  to -which 
words  are  rightly  put  together  to  make  sentences,  or  which  we  must  mind  in  order  to  under- 
stand sentences  or  make  them.  Governing  word,  a  word  that  causes  the  farm  of  some  other 
word;  a  preposition  or  a  transitive  verb.  Term,  from  the  Latin  term'inus,  a  boundary ; 
what  bounds  or  circumscribes  a  meaning  ;  a  word  or  an  expression. 

Apposition,  from  ad,  changed  to  op,  and  position;  placing  near  or  beside,  for  the  ex- 
planatory term  is  placed  beside  the  other  one.  Absolutely  (Note  10th)  without  a  noun  or 
p-onoun  to  which  the  adjective  belongs.  Construction,  arrangement  and  sense  with  other 
words.  Absolutely  or  independently  (Note  12th),  without  a  noun  or  pronoun  to  which  the 
participle  or  infinitive  belongs. 

Independently  (Note  13th),  without  modifying  any  word  in  the  sentence.  Same  con- 
struction (Rule  15th), — two  or  more  nouns  are  in  the  sume  construction,  when  they  are 
nominatives  to  the  same  verb,  or  are  governed  by  the  same  w-ord ;  two  or  more  verbs  are 
ai  the  same  construction,  when  they  have  the  same  nominative;  two  or  more  adjectives  are 
'«  the  same  construction,  when  they  qualify  the  same  noun  or  pronoun,  etc.  No  grammati- 
K(tl  connection,  no  such  connection  as  a  grammar  can  treat  of ;  independent  of,  free  from. 

Parsing,  from  the  Latin  pars,  part ;  literally,  parts-ing  o?  piercing,  to  get  at  the  sense  : 
separating  into  the  parts  or  simple  ideas  which  make  up  a  thing  or  complex  idea.  Form'- 
ula,  something  to  show  how  a  thing  should  be  done. 

8  8-101.  False  Syntax  ;  the  wrong  words  put  together,  or  the  right  words  improperly 
put  together,  to  make  sentences.  Politeness;  kindness  that  shows  good  breeding  on  our 
part,  and  a  delicate  regard  for  the  feelings  or  happiness  of  others.  Ambig'uous,  having  two 
meanings.  Ac'cent;  a  greater  stress  of  voice  on  some  syllable  of  a  word  than  on  the  re- 
maining syllables,  made  for  the  sake  of  distinction  or  for  euphony  and  easy  pronunciation. 
Voluntary,  coming  from  a  person's  free  will,  of  one's  own  accord.  Coniin'gent,  happen* 
ins:  to.  Compul'sory,  compelled,  forced.  Anal'ogy,  resemblance  in  the  relation  of  things, 
—thus,  scales  on  a  fish  are  analogous  to  shingles  on  a  house ;  some  similarity  belonging  to  a 
number  of  words.  Consistent,  not  improper,  making  g  od  sense  with.  Promis'cuous, 
mixed.  Connection,  tie,  arrangement,  construction.  Jnel'egant ;  not  so  polite,  refined,  or 
good  as  it  should  be.     Appro'priate,  suitable,  fit. 

103  29.  Annlysis,  from  the  Greek  ana,  up,  and  lysis,  loosening ;  literally,  a  loosen- 
ing up.  (Compare  with  our  phrase  to  cut  up  a  thing.)  The  analysis  of  sentences  is  a  kind 
of  higher  parsing,  being  in  some  respects  to  parsing  as  algebra  is  to  arithmetic.  Discourse', 
in  its  original  meaning,  refers  to  the  flow  of  thought;  and  thence  it  lias  been  applied  to 
whatever  is  said  or  written.  I'aragraph,  from  the  Greek  pxira,  near,  beside,  and  graphs 
■writing;  written  beside,  what  is  written  apart  or  separate.  Dedar'atite,  saying  boldly. 
E.'\  1 1 m'atory,  cvyins  out.  lndependent,hi\.\\n%  nothing  to  do  with  others.  Dependent, 
relying  on  others.  Log'icul,  belonging  to  Logic;  and  grammatical,  belonging  to  Gram- 
mar ;  because,  formerly,  the  parts  so  named,  belonged  peculiarly  to  these  sciences. 

Element,  one  of  the  simple  things  that  makes  a  part  of  a  larger.  Ellip'sis,  the  omission 
of  such  words  as  can  be  easily  supplied  by  the  mind.  Ellip'tical,  bavins  words  omitted. 
Inverted;  so  arranged  that  what  ordinarily  follows,  precedes.  Correlative,  mutually  de- 
pendent. Logical  order  and  fullness  ;  according  to  Logic,  in  the  reasoning  manner,  or  as  a 
cool  and  deliberate  mind  wouid  state  a  thing.  An  idiom  is  a  peculiar  form  of  expression, 
through  which  the  sense  generally  runs  like  the  grain  through  a  knot  of  wood. 

135-151.  Punctuation,  from  punt-turn,  a  point ;  the  art  of  using  points.  Period, 
means,  literally,  a  circuit  of  words  ;  colon,  a  member;  semicolon,  half  a  member  ;  comma, 
a  part  cut  off;  and  thence  the  words  were  applied  to  the  points  showing  these  parts.  Ab- 
breviation, a  word  shortened  by  omitting  some  of  its  letters.  Par-en-thet'-ic  ;  what  brings 
out  the  full  sense,  but  can  be  omitted  without  destroying  the  sense.  The  curves  are  often 
called  marks  of  parenthesis,  or  parenthesis  ;  but  parenthesis  properly  denotes  what  is  en- 
closed by  them,  by  dashes  so  used,  or  by  brackets.  Capital,  from  the  Latin  word  caput, 
head  ;  chief,  large. 

Figure,  shape,  form  ;  a  form  or  mode  of  speech.  Net'aphor,  transfer.  Meton'ymy,  chango 
of  name.  Sun-ec'-do-che,  understanding  one  thing  with  another.  Verse;  a  turning,  t bit 
is,  aturning'baek  at  the  end  of  the  line  to  make  another  line.  Iam'bic,  attacking;  being 
first  used  in  satire.  Trochee,  tripping,  running.  Dactyl,  finger  ;  because,  it  has  three  parts, 
like  a  fimrer.  An'apest;  reversed,  i.  e.,  reversed  dactyl.  Im-ag-in-a'-tion;  that  facility 
or  power  of  the  mind  which  calls  up  the  shapes  of  things  that  are  absent,  or  which  jvitures 
forth  things  that  do  not  exist. 


YB  36463 


4JL1 
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AMERICAN  EDUCATIONAL 


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PROGRESSIVE  TABLE-BOOK.      Illustrated,    -        -        . 
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